NRLF 


The  Gift  of  Beatrix  Farrand 

to  the  General  Library 
University  of  Calif  ornia}Berkeley 


I 


Ex 

Libris 

BEATRIX 
JONES 

LANDSCAPE 


A     TREATISE 


ON 


PRUNING  FOREST  AND  ORNAMENTAL  TREES. 


..."  If  the  forests  should  disappear,  civilization  would  become 
extinguished  on  the  earth.  .  .  . 

"  It  is  the  duty  of  an  enlightened  community  to  plant  trees,  and 
to  so  care  for  them  that  posterity  shall  not  suffer,  —  a  duty  unfortu- 
nately too  little  regarded  in  our  day."  —  DECAISNE. 


PUBLICATIONS 

OF   THE 

&ocietg  for  tfje  promotion  of  Agriculture. 

A    TREATISE 

ON 

PRUIIXG  FOREST  AID  ORIAMEKTAL  TREES 

BY   A.iJDES    CARS. 

TRANSLATED    FROM   THE   SEVENTH  FRENCH   EDITION. 


it{j  an  Introduction 


BY  CHARLES    S.  SARGENT, 

PROFESSOR   OF   ARBORICULTURE   IN   HARVARD   COLLEGE. 


FOURTH     EDITION. 


BOSTON: 
PUBLISHED    BY    THE    SOCIETY. 

1900. 


Copyright,  1881, 
BY  CHARLES  S.  SARGENT. 


UNIVERSITY  PRESS  : 
JOHN  WILSON  AND  SON,  CAMBRIDGE. 


Add  to  Lib. 

LANDSCAPE 
ARCHITECTURE 


Land- 
scae 


INTRODUCTION 


AMERICAN     EDITION. 


THE  Trustees  of  the  Massachusetts  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Agriculture  have  intrusted  me  with  the 
preparation  of  an  American  edition  of  the  Count  des 
Cars'  treatise  on  Pruning  Forest  Trees. 

No  comprehensive  work  on  this  subject  has  appeared 
before  in  the  English  language.  This,  perhaps,  is  not 
remarkable.  In  Great  Britain  the  earlier  plantations, 
largely  inspired  by  the  works  of  Evelyn,  were  made 
with  the  view  of  ornamenting  private  parks,  and  the 
question  of  increasing  the  individual  capacity  of  trees 
to  produce  timber  by  any  system  of  pruning  was 
hardly  considered.  The  economic  plantations  of  later 
years,  made  in  Scotland  and  afterwards  in  England, 
have  been  generally  composed  of  coniferous  species, 
which,  when  properly  planted,  largely  prune  them- 
selves. In  America  we  have  been  too  busy  devising 
methods  for  cutting  down  our  forests  to  give  serious 
consideration  to  other  branches  of  forest  economy  ; 
and  the  American  people  have  yet  to  show  whether 
they  can  ever  replace  the  magnificent  tree-covering 

815 


Vl  TREE    PRUNING. 

their  ancestors  found  on  this  continent,  and  which 
they  are  now  too  rapidly  and  surely  destroying. 

The  advantage  of  pruning  forest  trees,  in  order  to 
increase  their  yield  of  timber,  was  recognized  in  Ger- 
many as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  At  first  warmly  advocated,  the  practice 
seems  to  have  been  soon  very  generally  abandoned ; 
and  it  was  not  until  the  writings  of  de  Courval  and 
des  Cars,  recommending  a  scientific  system  based  on 
fundamental  laws  of  vegetable  physiology,  again 
called  public  attention  to  the  importance  of  the 
subject,  that  systematic  pruning  became  a  regular 
operation  in  all  Continental  forests.1 

Their  system  is  based  on  the  fact  that,  as  wood  is 
alone  formed  by  descending,  elaborated  sap,  a  wound 

1  The  following  are  the  most  important  works  which  have  been 

published  on  this  subject  :  — 

Grundsdtze  der  Forst-GEconomie.     Moser.     1775. 

Anleitung  zur  sicheren  Erzielung  der  heimischen  und  fremden  Holzarten. 
Burgsdorf.  1785. 

Lehrbuchfur  Forster.     Hartig.     1811. 

Behandlung  und  Schatzung  des  Mittelwaldes.     Pfeil.     1830. 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Horticulture,  Chap.  XIII.     Lindley.     1855. 

Taille  et  Conduits  des  Arbres  Forestiers.     De  Courval.     1861. 

L'Elagage  des  Arbres.     Des  Cars.     1864. 

Anleitung  zum  nationellen  Betrieb  der  Ausdstung.   Von  Muhlen.     1873. 

For stliches  Halfsbuch  fur  Schule  und  Praxis.     Pressler.     1872. 

Schneiden  und  Ausdsten.     Tramnitz.     1873. 

Sdmen  und  Pflanzen.     Burckhard.    1874. 

Das  Ausdsten  der  Waldbdume.     Vitus  Ratzka.     1874. 

Ueber  die  Folgen  ausseren  Verletzungen  der  Bdume.     Goeppert.     1874. 

Notice  sur  I'Elagage  des  Arbres,  by  Martinet.  Published  by  the  Admin- 
istration of  the  French  Forests  in  connection  with  the  national 
exhibition  of  forest  products  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878, —  a 
valuable  paper  to  which  I  am  indebted  for  much  information. 


INTRODUCTION.  vn 

made  on  a  tree  can  only  be  recovered  with  healthy, 
new  wood,  when  its  entire  circumference  is  brought 
into  direct  communication  with  the  leaves  by  means 
of  the  layer  of  young  and  growing  cells  formed  be- 
tween the  wood  and  the  bark.  To  make  this  connec- 
tion it  is  necessary  to  prune  in  such  a  manner  that  no 
portion  of  an  amputated  or  dead  branch  shall  be  left 
on  the  trunk.  The  cut  should  always  be  made  close 
to  and  perfectly  even  with  the  outline  of  the  trunk 
without  regard  to  the  size  of  the  wound  thus  made. 
This  is  the  essential  rule  in  all  pruning,  and  on  its 
observance  the  success  of  the  operation  depends. 

It  is  not  probable  that  the  practice  of  pruning  forest 
trees  will  be  generally  adopted  in  the  United  States 
until  the  further  destruction  of  our  forests  has  carried 
the  cost  of  forest  products  to  a  point  where  it  will 
be  profitable  to  plant  and  rear  in  this  country  new 
forests  according  to  scientific  methods.  That  time 
cannot  be  far  distant ;  and  already  many  of  our 
special  industries  dependent  on  certain  hard  woods 
feel  the  want  of  better  and  more  abundant  material. 
Some  attention,  especially  in  the  Prairie  States,  has 
of  late  years  been  given  to  tree-planting,  and  large 
and  successful  plantations  already  exist  in  many  parts 
of  the  country.  The  value  of  such  plantations  can 
be  greatly  increased  by  the  early  adoption  of  a  scien- 
tific system  of  pruning,  which,  if  applied  also  to  the 
valuable  hard-wood  trees  scattered  over  the  more 
thickly  populated  portions  of  the  country,  could  not  fail 
to  largely  increase  their  productive  capacity. 


vm  TREE    PRUNING. 

The  climate  of  the  United  States  renders  it  de- 
sirable that  our  highways  should  be  bordered  with 
trees.1  They  are  necessary  to  protect  the  traveller 
from  the  cold  winds  of  winter  and  the  excessive  heat 
of  the  summer  sun.  This  necessity  is  recognized ; 
and  city  and  roadside  trees  are  everywhere  planted. 
Such  plantations,  however,  too  often  suffer  from  total 
neglect,  or  from  injurious  systems  of  pruning,  which 
shorten  rather  than  prolong  the  lives  of  trees,  and 
diminish  their  usefulness  and  beauty. 

Des  Cars'  method  of  pruning  might  well  be  adopted 
by  all  persons  in  charge  of  highway  plantations  ;  and 
the  advantage  of  such  a  system  being  thus  demon- 
strated, its  general  application  to  purely  economic 
plantations,  and  to  the  timber  trees  scattered  over 
the  country,  will  naturally  follow. 

C.  S.  SARGENT. 

BROOKLINE,  1881. 

1  The  importance  of  following  in  all  street  and  roadside  planting 
the  rule  which  requires  that  every  connected  street  must  be  planted 
with  a  single  variety  of  tree  should  be  insisted  on.  This  plan  is 
universally  adopted  in  Europe,  and  its  advantages  over  that  which 
mixes  various  trees  widely  differing  in  habit,  rapidity  of  growth,  and 
longevity  in  the  same  street  plantation,  are  very  great.  This  will  be 
seen  by  comparing  the  effect  produced  by  the  rows  of  Elms  on  the 
Mall  in  Central  Park,  or  by  the  magnificent  avenues  of  Live-oaks  near 
Savannah,  and  on  Cumberland  Island,  Georgia,  with  the  mixed  plan- 
tations too  often  seen  in  this  country,  and  in  which  alternating  Elms 
and  Maples  form  a  favorite  combination. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FRENCH  EDITION. 


I  HAVE  no  claim  to  originality  in  this  work,  and 
my  only  object  in  its  publication  is  to  popularize 
de  Courval's  method  of  pruning,  in  order  that  all 
owners  of  rural  property  may  increase  the  value  of 
their  trees  in  a  simple,  sure,  and  inexpensive  manner, 
through  a  system  of  rational  priming. 

M.  de  Courval  first  laid  down  the  principles  on 
which  the  system  I  recommend  is  based ;  and  this 
little  treatise  is  by  no  means  intended  to  take  the 
place  of  his  larger  work,  which  I  cordially  recom- 
mend to  every  one  interested  in  forest  management. 

I  acknowledge  the  priority  of  M.  de  Courval's 
publication,  and  consider  it  an  honor  to  follow  in 
his  footsteps  ;  although  I  am  alone  responsible  for 
the  system  I  recommend,  which  has,  moreover,  been 
reached  through  my  own  investigations  and  experi- 
ments. 

The  illustrations  scattered  through  the  text  have 
been  drawn  from  nature  and  have  one  merit,  —  that 
of  correctness. 

A.   DES   CARS. 


PROFESSOR  J.   DECAISNE,  Member  of  the  Institute,  Director  of  the 
Gardens  of  the  Museum,  of  Natural  History,  Paris. 

MY  DEAR  SIR, —  In  your  learned  and  brilliant  address 
delivered  at  the  Museum  the  thirtieth  of  April  last,  you 
sanctioned  the  method  of  pruning  practised  with  perfect 
success  for  more  than  forty  years  by  M.  de  Courval  in  the 
forests  of  his  vast  estate  of  Pinon  (Aisue). 

M.  de  Courval  has  detailed  his  methods  in  a  work1  of  great 
interest  and  value,  but  too  technical,  and  too  expensive  per- 
haps, for  general  use.  Having  been  long  occupied  in  the 
study  of  this  important  subject,  I  prepared,  several  years  ago, 
a  purely  practical  treatise  on  pruning,  almost  identical  in  its 
conclusions  with  the  more  elaborate  work  of  M.  de  Courval, 
although  entirely  based  on  my  own  observations  and  experi- 
ments. 

Your  encouragement  and  the  desire  of  M.  de  Courval  have 
decided  me  to  publish,  almost  in  its  original  form,  this  treatise. 
It  has  been  used  by  a  few  practical  foresters,  a  class  for  which 
it  is  intended,  although  containing  certain  general  considera- 
tions to  which  I  desire  to  call  the  attention  of  all  interested 
in  sylviculture. 

The  authority  which  you  give  me  to  place  your  name  on 
this  page  is  the  best  guarantee  I  can  offer  to  the  public  that 
the  system  my  humble  production  explains  is  based  on  true 
scientific  principles ;  and  your  name  will  contribute  more  than 
any  other  to  the  success  of  my  efforts  to  preserve  and  develop 
an  important  and  neglected  source  of  the  national  wealth. 

A.    DES    CARS. 
PARIS,  June,  1864. 

1  Taille  et  conduite  des  arbres  forestiers  et  autres  arbres  de  grande 
dimension,  ou  Nouvelle  me'thode  de  traitement  des  arbres  a  haute  tige,  etc. 
Paris,  1861. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PA6E 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 5 

Formation  of  Wood 9 

Disadvantages  of  the  Common  System  of  Pruning  ....  11 

Advantage  of  increasing  the  Number  of  Reserve  Trees     .     .  15 


CHAPTER  II 

GOOD  PRUNING.  —  ITS  AIMS  AND    METHODS.  —  DIVISION    BY 

AGE  OF  RESERVE  TREES  INTO  FOUR  CLASSES   ....  17 

Aim  and  Method  of  Pruning 17 

Classification  of  Forest  Trees  according  to  Age 19 


CHAPTER  III. 

APPLICATION  OF  THE  SYSTEM 22 

Tools  used  in  Pruning 22 

Ladders 23 

Hooks  or  Spurs 24 

The  Dendroscope 25 

Selection  of  the  Leader 27 

Shortening  Main  Branches 28 

Sap  Lifters 29 

Double  or  Forking  Branches 31 

The  Amputation  of  Large  Branches 34 

Use  of  Coal-tar  in  Dressing  Wounds 36 


xil  TREE    PRUNING. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

PAGE 

METHOD  OF  PRUNING  KESERVE  TREES  OF  DIFFERENT  AGES  .  38 

Young  Trees 38 

Middle-aged  Trees 43 

Old  Trees 44 

Veterans 46 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  TREATMENT  OF  OLD  WOUNDS.  —  CAVITIES  IN  THE  TRUNK. 

—  THE  REMOVAL  OF  SHOOTS 51 

Loosened  Bark 52 

Cavities  in  the  Trunk 52 

Removal  of  Shoots ,  .54 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SEASON  FOR  PRUNING.  —  THE  USE  OF  COAL-TAR 57 

Season  for  Pruning 57 

The  Use  of  Coal-tar       58 

Objections  to  other  Preparations    . 58 

Effects  of  Coal-tar  on  the  Elm 59 

Employment  of  Coal-tar  in  Protecting  Young  Plantations 

against  Animals     . 60 

Employment  of  Coal-tar  on  Fruit  Trees 60 

CHAPTER  VII. 

SOFT  WOODS.  —  POPLARS.  —  CONIFERS 62 

SoftWoods 62 

Poplars 62 

Conifers    .  ....  63 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

FIG.  1.  Badly  pruned  Beech 7 

"  2.  Young  unpruned  Oak 8 

"  3.  Trunk  of  an  Oak  ruined  by  the  decay  of  its  lower 

branches 9 

"  4.  Decay  caused  by  the  breaking  of  a  large  branch  ...  10 

"  5.  Formation  of  wood  by  the  descending  sap 11 

"  6.  Effect  of  bad  pruning 12 

"  7.  Section  of  a  trunk  showing  the  effects  of  good  and  bad 

pruning 13 

"  8.  Portion  of  a  branch  left  in  pruning 13 

"  9.  Portion  of  a  branch  left  in  pruning  at  the  end  of  the  fifth 

year 14 

"  10.  Portion  of  a  branch  left  in  pruning  at  the  end  of  the  tenth 

year 15 

"  11.  Trunk  ruined  by  the  decay  of  the  stump  of  a  branch  .  .  15 

"  12.  Form  for  young  tree 20 

"  13.  Form  for  middle-aged  tree 20 

"  14.  Form  for  old  tree 21 

"  15.  Form  for  very  old  tree 21 

"  16.  Pruning  knife 22 

"  17.  Hook  used  in  carrying  pruning  knife 22 

"  18.  Manner  of  carrying  pruning  knife 23 

"  19.  Manner  of  carrying  pruning  knife 23 

"20.  Manner  of  attaching  the  ladder  to  the  tree 24 

"  21.  Manner  of  using  dendroscope 26 

"  22.  Formation  of  a  leader 27 

"  23.  Formation  of  a  head  with  several  branches 28 

"  24.  Method  of  shortening  a  main  branch 29 

"  25.  Treatment  for  a  forking  branch 30 


xiv  TREE    PRUNING. 

PAGE 

FIG.  26.   Method  of  shortening  a  main  branch .32 

"    27.   Pruning  badly  commenced 33 

"    28.    Method  of  cutting  a  large  branch 35 

"  29.   Method  of  cutting  a  large  branch     ........  36 

"  30.   Proper  appearance  of  a  wound  made  in  pruning   ...  §6 

"    31.   Formation  of  a  leader  on  a  young  tree 39 

"    32.   Method  of  supporting  a  young  tree 39 

"    33.   Young  tree  properly  pruned 40 

"  34.   Method  of  forming  a  leader  on  a  young  tree     ....  40 

"  35.   Method  of  forming  a  leader  on  a  young  tree     ....  41 

"     36.   First  pruning  of  a  young  tree 41 

"    37.   Treatment  of  a  forked  tree 42 

"     38.   Method  of  pruning  a  weak  sapling 42 

"     39.   Tree  forty  years  old.     First  pruning 43 

"    40.   Tree  sixty  years  old.     First  pruning 43 

"    41.   Badly  shaped  tree.     First  pruning 44 

"    42.  Old  Oaks.     First  pruning 45 

"    43.   Old  Oaks.    First  pruning 45 

"  44.   Method  of  pruning  an  old  tree  to  preserve  its  younger 

neighbor 46 

"    45.   Very  old  tree.     First  pruning 47 

"    46.   Trunk  of  Oak  injured  by  neglect 48 

"    47.   The  same  two  years  after  treatment 48 

"    48.   Oak  restored  to  vigor  by  pruning 49 

"    49.   Treatment  of  an  old  wound 52 

"    60.   Treatment  of  cavities  in  the  trunk 54 

"     51.   Pruning  hook 55 

"    52.   Formation  of  branches  on  young  trees 56 

"     53.   Pine  badly  pruned 64 

V    64.  The  dendroscope 67 


TREE    PRUNING. 


TREE    PRUNING. 


CHAPTER   I. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

THE  appearance  of  many  trees,  their  trunks  cov- 
ered with  gaping  wounds,  protuberances,  and  the 
stumps  of  dead  branches,  clearly  indicates  that  they 
have  received  careless  or  ignorant  treatment.  It  is 
evident  even  to  persons  little  familiar  with  the  art 
of  Sylviculture  that  such  trees  are  decayed  to  the 
heart,  and  of  little  value  for  industrial  purposes. 
The  number  of  trees  thus  affected  is  very  great, 
and  the  annual  aggregate  loss  to  the  community 
from  the  bad  management  to  which  trees  are  every- 
where subjected  is  enormous.  Such  a  condition  is 
the  result  generally  of  entire  neglect  of  pruning, 
or  often,  perhaps,  of  an  unnatural  and  therefore 
improper  system. 

The  idea  of  increasing  the  productive  capacity  of 
forests  by  systematic  pruning  is  not  a  new  one,  —  no 
process  of  Sylviculture  has  been  more  often  discussed. 
In  Belgium,  where  more  than  in  any  other  country 


6  TREE    PRUNING. 

the  subject  of  forest  management  has  occupied  the 
public  mind,  the  two  legislative  chambers,  a  few 
years  ago,  discussed  this  subject  at  great  length  with- 
out reaching  any  satisfactory  conclusion ;  in  France, 
authorities  do  not  yet  agree,  —  some  condemn  all 
pruning,  while  others  believe  in  the  advantage  of 
pruning,  but  without  agreeing  on  the  best  methods 
to  adopt. 

Certain  theorists  declare  that  there  is  an  absolute 
correlation  between  the  roots  and  the  branches  of  a 
tree,  and  that  the  cutting  off  of  a  branch  necessarily 
kills  the  corresponding  root.  If  such  a  theory  is  cor- 
rect, how  can  the  results  obtained  by  cutting  back 
young  trees  to  the  ground  or  the  topping  of  pollards, 
by  which  all  branches  are  suppressed,  be  explained  ? 

A  more  serious  objection  to  pruning,  w.hich  is  often 
made  by  timber  dealers,  —  the  persons,  perhaps,  most 
interested  in  the  matter,  and  therefore  most  compe- 
tent to  judge,  — is  that  trees  which  have  been  pruned 
lose  by  the  operation  twenty-five,  thirty,  or  even  fifty 
per  cent  of  their  value,  that  is,  a  quarter  to  a  half, 
and  that  such  trees  are  generally  decayed.  This  can- 
not be  denied  ;  but  it  proves  that  such  trees  have 
been  badly  pruned,  —  not  that  all  pruning  is  bad. 
Opponents  of  pruning  maintain,  too,  that  the  scars 
which  such  operations  must  leave  on  the  trunks  of 
trees  indicate  internal  defects  in  the  wood,  and  that 
these  trees  cannot  be  readily  sold.  This  objection  is 
also  well  founded  in  view  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
operations  of  pruning  are  generally  performed ;  but 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 


it  is  the  method  which  is  faulty,  and  such  objections 
must  disappear  before  more  scientific  and  rational 
treatment. 

A  glance  at  Fig.  1  shows  the  effects  of  bad  prun- 
ing. Here  the  trunk  of  a  Beech  is  represented 
mutilated,  and  in  a  condition 
which  might  well  justify  the 
general  condemnation  of  prun- 
ing, if  pruning  was  always  fol- 
lowed by  such  results. 

A  system  of  forest  manage- 
ment which  discards  pruning 
is  disastrous,  and,  even  if  it 
were  less  so,  would  have  many 
practical  objections.  A  tree 
left  entirely  to  itself  gener- 
ally develops  in  one  of  two 
directions.  It  does  not  grow 
upwards  and  assumes  the  low 
round  form  common  to  the 
apple-tree ;  the  lower  branches 

Fig.  1.  -  Badly  pruned  Beech  ; 

gTOW    disproportionately    large     its  trunk  covered  with  cavities  of 
,         ,          ,  different  depths  and  partly  filled 

and  absorb  too  much  sap,  with  water. 
to  the  detriment  of  the  top  of  the  tree ;  and  these 
long,  heavy  branches  are  often  broken  by  the  wind 
or  by  snow  and  ice,  leaving  hideous  stumps  (Fig.  2). 
Trees  of  this  form  are  very  common ;  they  gen- 
erally decay  at  the  top  before  reaching  maturity, 
and  have  little  commercial  value.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  vigorous  trees  grow  disproportionately 


8  TREE  PRUNING. 

at  the  top ;  the  lower  branches  die  from  insufficient 
nourishment,  fall   off,  and   leave,  when   large,  bare 


Fig.  2.  —  A  young  unpruned  Oak  growing  in  rich  soil.  A.  Dead 
branches.  B.  Branches  broken  by  the  wind  or  by  the  weight  of 
snow  and  ice. 

decayed  spots,  which  gradually  penetrate  to  the 
heart  of  the  tree,  and  ruin  also  its  commercial 
value  (Fig.  3). 

Wounds  caused  by  the  breaking  off  of  large 
branches  by  wind  or  snow  produce  the  same  results 
(Fig.  4).  There  is  no  remedy  for  the  dangerous 
effects  of  such  accidents  except  in  pruning ;  it  is  a 
simple  question  of  surgery.  Without  pruning,  the 
tree  must  sooner  or  later  decay ;  with  pruning,  its 
value  may  be  preserved. 

The  secret  of  obtaining  a  complete  cure  in  all 
operations  requiring  the  removal  of  a  branch,  either 
living  or  dead,  consists  in  cutting  dose  to,  and  perfectly 
even  with,  the  trunk.  Many  authorities  have  hinted 
at  this,  the  cardinal  principle  of  all  pruning  ;  but  M. 


GENERAL   CONSIDERATIONS. 


9 


de  Courval  first  clearly  demonstrated  its  importance, 
while  his  discovery  of  the  value  of  coal-tar  or  the 
refuse  from  gas-works  as  a 
covering  for  wounds  made 
in  pruning  renders  the  ap- 
plication of  his  rule  in  all 
cases  entirely  safe. 

Formation  of  Wood.  —  The 
reason  that  a  branch  should 
be  cut  close  and  even  with 
the  trunk  is  found  in  one 
of  the  simple  laws  of  plant 
life.  It  is  known  that  sap 
has  a  double  movement,  — 
that  it  mounts  from  the 
roots  to  the  leaves,  and 
returns  again  in  an  elabo- 
rated condition  to  the  roots. 

RootS    take    Up    Water    from        ^-S.-Portion  of  the  trunk  of  an 

unpruned  Oak  ruined  by  the  decay  of  its 

the  soil  in  which  there  are  lower  branches, 
various  salts  in  solution.  This  water  rises  to  the 
leaves ;  these  absorb  from  the  air  and  decompose 
carbonic  acid  gas,  the  basis  of  which  is  carbon, 
which  combined  with  water  constitutes  the  elements 
of  wood.  The  sap  thus  elaborated  by  the  leaves 
is  carried  down  again  in  a  liquid  state  and  is 
deposited,  year  after  year,  in  the  successive  concen- 
tric layers  of  wood  which  form  the  trunks  of  all 
trees,  with  the  exception  of  Palms,  Yuccas,  &c., 
which  need  not  now  be  considered. 


10  TREE   PRUNING. 

It  follows  that  a  wound  caused  by  the  amputation 
of  a  branch  must,  in  order  to  heal  properly,  be  made 
perfectly  even  with  the  trunk,  that 
every  part  of  its  outer  edge  may  be 
brought  into  direct  communication 
with  the  leaves  through  the  net- 
work of  cells  destined  to  convey 
the  descending  sap.    Although  this 
theory  rests   on    one  of  the   most 
elementary  principles  of  vegetable 
physiology,  it  has  not  been  applied 
,   before  to  practical  forest  manage- 
the  loss  of  a  ment.       The    amputation    having 

large  branch  broken  by  the 

wind.  been   made    even  with   the   trunk 

in  the  manner  explained,  new  wood  will  soon  appear, 
forming  first  round  the  top  and  sides  of  the  wound, 
which  is  soon  completely  surrounded  by  the  new 
growth  ;  the  wound  is  gradually  healed  over,  and 
the  decay  of  the  trunk  prevented.  The  time  required 
for  the  complete  healing  of  a  wound  depends,  of 
course,  upon  its  dimensions  and  the  natural  vigor 
of  the  tree. 

The  principle  being  established  that  large  wounds 
can  be  made  without  injury  to  the  tree  if  care  is 
taken  in  the  manner  indicated  to  prevent  decay,  it 
is  easy  to  show  the  advantage  of  cutting  off  injured 
branches  of  any  size.  It  is  preferable  to  avoid,  of 
course,  the  necessity  of  making  large  wounds  by 
properly  pruning  trees  when  young.  All  foresters 
agree  that  trees  should  be  trained  when  young,  but 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  11 

de  Courval  has  amply  demonstrated  by  numerous 
remarkable  specimens  exhibited  at  the  Agricultural 
Show  of  Paris,  in  1861,  and  at  the  Universal  Exposition 
of  London,  in  1862,  that  it  is  beneficial,  and  often  in- 
dispensable, to  prune  the  oldest  trees  if  care  and  judg- 
ment are  used  in  the  operation.  He  has  clearly 
shown,  too,  that  trunks  so  treated  attained  a  larger 
size  and  a  greater  value  in  a  given  time  than  those 
which,  under  similar  conditions  of  growth,  had  been 
allowed  to  retain  all  their  badly  placed  branches. 
I  regret  in  this  connection  to  differ  from  so  eminent 
an  authority  as  de  Breuil,  who  gives  the  following 
rule :  "  Amputations  must  be  performed  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  diameter  of  the  wound  shall  not 
exceed  that  of  the  end  of  the  branch."  Such  a 
practice  must,  I  believe,  be  dis- 
astrous, for  whenever  a  branch 
of  large  size  is  amputated  in  this 
way,  it  is  evident  that  a  cavity 
in  the  trunk  of  the  tree  will 
sooner  or  later  appear. 

Disadvantages  of  the  Common  Sys- 
tem of  Pruning.  —  As  descending 
sap  alone  forms  the  new  bark  and 
wood  which  heal  over  a  wound,  it  follows  that,  if 
a  cut  is  made  in  the  manner  represented  by  the 
line  A  B  (Fig.  5),  the  new  growth  cannot  cover 
over  the  lower  part,  B  C,  which  is  cut  off  from 
communication  with  the  leaves ;  so  that  the  wood 
included  in  the  lines  A  B,  AC,  not  being  covered 


12  TREE    PRUNING. 

with  a  new  growth  must  soon  begin  to  decay,  and  in 
time  destroy  the  trunk  of  the  tree  (Fig.  6).  Ex- 
amples of  this  bad  method  are  very  common.  Each 
amputation  of  a  branch  produces  a  cavity,  and  the 
tree  soon  becomes  entirely  decayed.  In  view  of  such 
destruction,  it  might  seem,  perhaps,  that  branches  of 
a  certain  diameter  cannot  be  safely  amputated.  That 
this  is  an  erroneous  idea  will  be  easily  seen  ;  and  it  is 
only  necessary  to  make  the  amputation  even  with  the 
trunk,  and  then  cover  the  wound  with  coal  tar  to 
avoid  all  bad  Vesults.  Although 
wounds  caused  by  the  amputation 
of  small  branches  heal  over  in  spite 
of  the  faulty  methods  of  pruning 
generally  employed,  such  opera- 
tions are,  nevertheless,  attended 
with  considerable  danger  to  the 
tree.  Protuberances  are  formed 

°U    the    tl>Unk  ^    tU 


Fig.  6.  —  Decaying  Oak, 

showing  the  effect  of  ampu-  the  branches   have  been  cut,  and 

tating  a  branch  in  such  a 

way  that  the  diameter  of  the     these  produce  a  multitude  of  Small 


shoots   (A,   Fig.   7).     The 
the  branch.  development   of    such   shoots    in- 

dicates that  a  tree  is  in  an  unnatural  condition,  which 
may  be  entirely  avoided  by  cutting  the  branch  even 
with  the  trunk  (B,  Fig.  7). 

Experience  and  common-sense  show  the  objection 
to  leaving  any  portion  of  an  amputated  limb,  but 
there  is  greater  danger  in  allowing  stumps  one  or 
two  feet  long  to  remain  on  the  trunk,  a  common 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 


13 


practice  even  among  persons  interested  in  the  preser- 
vation of  trees  (Fig.  8). 


Fig.  7.  —  Longitudinal  section  of  the  trunk  of  an 
Oak  cut  twenty  years  after  pruning.  A.  A  medium- 
sized  branch  badly  amputated.  B.  A  large  branch 
properly  amputated 

These  stumps,  deprived  of  communication  with  the 
leaves,  die,  the  bark  falls  off,  while  the  stumps  them- 
selves remain  like  plugs  of 
decaying  wood  driven  into 
the  trunk  (Fig.  9> 

In  a  few  years  the  stumps 
rot  (Fig.  10),  and  decay 
penetrates  to  the  heart  of 
the  tree.  Fig.  11  shows  the 
fatal  results  of  this  method 
of  pruning. 

The  method  of  pruning 
deciduous  forest  trees,  and  especially  the  Oak,  will  be 
first  considered  in  this  treatise.  The  Oak  is  selected 
as  the  most  valuable  of  our  timber  trees,  and  because 
unfortunate  and  deeply  rooted  prejudices  exist  in 


Fig.  8.  — Stump  of  a  branch   left 
in  pruning. 


14  TREE    PRUNING. 

regard  to  the  manner  in  which  it  should  be  pruned. 

Particular  attention  will  be  given  to  the  treatment  of 
trees  intended  to  grow  on  to 
maturity,  in  connection  with 
a  system  of  coppice  growth, 
because  this  system  of  forest 
management  is  now  very  gen- 
erally adopted.1  The  methods 
here  advocated  are,  however, 
equally  applicable  to  other 
systems  of  sylviculture  ;  and 

Fig.  9.  —  Condition  of  the  stump 

at  the  end  of  the  fifth  year.  they  should  interest  small  as 

well  as  large  land  owners,  as  in  every  field  and  along 
every  roadside  are  trees  to  prune  and  improve.  If 
the  importance  of  properly  caring  for  trees  could 
be  appreciated,  an  important  addition  to  the  wealth 
of  the  nation  might  easily  be  made.  Oaks,  stunted 
or  abandoned,  and  only  fit  for  fuel,  might  in  a  few 
years  be  transformed  into  trees  of  great  value  ;  and,  if 
all  who  prune  may  not  themselves  find  their  reward, 
they  can  at  least  have  the  satisfaction  of  doing  some- 
thing to  benefit  another  generation. 

1  Futaie  sur  taillis,  a  term  which  is  without  equivalent  in  the  Eng- 
lish language,  is  applied  in  France  to  a  very  common  system  of 
forest  management.  It  consists  in  allowing  a  certain  number  of 
selected  trees  in  a  plantation  to  grow  to  maturity,  while  the  remainder 
is  treated  as  coppice,  or  "  sprout  land,"  and  cut  over  at  stated  periods, 
varying  from  ten  to  fifty  years,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  or 
the  necessity  or  wishes  of  the  proprietor.  The  trees  left  to  reach 
maturity  are  called  "  reserves,"  and  are  intended  to  furnish  large 
timber  for  purposes  of  construction.  These,  of  course,  receive  the 
greatest  care  and  most  careful  pruning.  c.  s.  s. 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 


15 


Fig.  10.  —  Condition  of  the  stump 
at  the  end  of  the  tenth  year. 


Advantage  of  increasing  the  Number  of  Reserve 
Trees.  —  In  addition  to  the  advantages  which  each 
individual  tree  may  derive 
from  the  method  of  pruning 
recommended  in  this  treatise, 
there  is  a  possibility  of  add- 
ing, and,  in  fact,  doubling  the 
number  of  reserve  trees  in  a 
plantation  without  interfer- 
ing with  the  coppice  or  grow- 
ing sprouts  which  surround 
them. 

If  it  can  be  proved  that  the  number  of  timber  trees 
may  be  doubled  in  a  plantation  by  good  management, 
and  that  the  value  of  indi- 
vidual trees  scattered  through 
the  fields  and  along  the  road- 
sides may  be  wonderfully  in- 
creased, it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand that  a  land-owner  may 
greatly  benefit  himself  and 
add  to  the  wealth  of  his 
country  by  adopting  such 
methods. 

That  pruning  can  accom- 
plish the  results  which  are  claimed  for  it  is  found  in 
the  fact  that  trees  treated  by  the  rational  system 
proposed  grow  more  vigorously  and  retain  their 
foliage  longer  than  unpruned  trees  in  the  same 
locality  grown  under  similar  conditions. 


Fig.  11.  —  Trunk  of  an  Oak  ruined 
by  the  decay  of  the  stump  of  a 
branch. 


16  TREE    PRUNING. 

Authorities  agree  on  the  influence  which  trees  exert 
on  the  climate,  the  watercourses  and  the  fertility  of 
the  soil.  Economically  indispensable  trees  are  not 
less  important  in  their  influence  on  the  health  of  man. 
Trees  purify  the  air  we  breathe  by  absorbing  noxious 
gases,  and  it  is  clearly  for  the  interest  of  the  com- 
munity to  preserve  and  multiply  the  forests,  which 
protect  the  human  race  from  many  evils. 


ITS   AIMS  AND   METHODS.  17 


CHAPTER    II. 

GOOD  PRUNING.— ITS  AIMS  AND  METHODS.— DIVI- 
SION BY  AGE  OF  RESERVE  TREES  INTO  FOUR 
CLASSES. 

Aim  and  Method  of  Pruning,  —  The  object  of  pruning, 
economically  considered,  is  to  make  it  possible  to 
raise  on  a  given  surface,  say  on  one  hundred  acres 
of  sprout  land,  the  greatest  number  of  full-grown 
trees,  and  to  make  them  attain  the  greatest  value 
in  the  shortest  time  without  injury  to  the  young 
trees  beneath  them.  This  may  be  accomplished  by 
increasing  the  vigor  of  the  reserve  trees  and  by 
lengthening,  without  diminishing  in  diameter,  their 
trunks.  Treated  in  this  manner  the  reserve  trees 
do  not  interfere  with  the  circulation  of  air  and  light 
necessary  to  the  development  of  the  undergrowth  ; 
and  many  serious  accidents  caused  to  trees  by  wind, 
frost,  and  snow  breaking  the  larger  branches  may  be 
avoided  by  keeping  their  heads  symmetrical  and  up- 
right. 

The  perfect  forest  tree  has  a  straight,  single  trunk 
without  protuberances  or  wounds,  and  carrying  up 
the  same  diameter  to  the  first  branches,  which  should 

2 


18  TREE    PRUNING. 

be  placed  at  a  distance  from  the  ground  equal  to 
one-third  or  one-half  of  the  total  height  of  the  tree. 
The  head  should  be  rounded,  regular,  and  set  up- 
right on  the  trunk.  The  wood,  owing  to  the  healthy 
growth  of  the  tree,  is  straight-grained,  compact,  and 
suitable  for  construction.  Such  trees  have  a  high 
value  ;  and,  in  order  to  grow  them,  a  method  of  prun- 
ing is  adopted  similar  to  that  practised  by  gardeners 
in  forming  pyramidal  fruit  trees,  with  the  difference, 
however,  that  the  gardener  favors  the  development 
of  the  lower  branches,  which  are  necessary  for  his 
purpose,  while  the  aim  of  the  forester  is  to  increase 
foliage  at  the  top  of  the  tree  by  diminishing  the  vigor 
of  the  lower  branches ;  and  to  obtain  by  successive 
suppressions  of  branches  the  necessary  length  of 
trunk. 

There  are  two  distinct  operations  in  pruning :  the 
removal  of  some  branches,  the  shortening  of  others. 
The  shape  of  a  tree  must  depend  somewhat,  of  course, 
upon  its  age,  the  nature  of  its  surroundings,  and  the 
character  of  the  soil,  etc.  Where  pruning  is  not 
practised  the  reserve  trees  approach  the  proper  form 
in  proportion  to  the  length  of  time  the  coppice 
beneath  them  is  allowed  to  grow.  In  forests,  where 
thirty  or  more  years  are  allowed  to  elapse  between 
the  cuttings,  the  undergrowth  serves  to  prune  the 
permanent  trees  by  checking5  the  development  of 
their  lower  branches,  and  thus  determining  the  height 
of  their  trunks.  Sprout  land  is,  however,  often  cut 
over  every  ten  years  ;  and  this  practice  prevents  the 


ITS  AIMS   AND   METHODS.  19 

production  of  fine  trees  by  permitting  the  growth 
of  their  lower  branches.  These,  of  course,  interfere 
with  the  growth  of  the  reserve  trees  themselves  as 
well  as  with  the  young  trees  between  them.  Judi- 
cious pruning  can  obviate  this  difficulty. 

Classification  of  Forest  Trees  according  to  Age.  —  The 
technical  names  by  which  reserve  trees  are  known 
vary  in  different  regions.  For  our  purpose  it  will  be 
best  to  divide  the  life  of  a  forest  tree  into  four  prin- 
cipal periods,  designated  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Young,  up  to  about  forty  years. 

2.  Middle-aged,  from  forty  to  eighty  years. 

3.  Old,   from   eighty   to   one    hundred   and   fifty 
years. 

4.  Very  old  trees,   whose  number  is   rapidly  di- 
minishing, may  be  called  Veterans.1 

These  divisions  are  not,  of  course,  absolute,  as  it  is 
often  difficult  to  determine,  even  approximately,  the 
age  of  a  standing  tree  ;  and  the  forester  must  use 
considerable  judgment  in  the  application  of  the  fol- 
lowing rules  :  — 

1.  The  head  of  the  young  tree  should  be  egg- 
shaped  or  elongated  oval  (Fig.  12),  and  well  balanced 

1  The  technical  terms  employed  in  France  to  designate  trees  of  the 
four  classes  into  which  forest  trees  are  generally  divided,  Baliveau, 
Moderne,  Ancien,  and  Vieilles  tfcorces,  have  no  equivalent  as  yet,  and  are 
not  well  translated  into  English.  The  term  "  Baliveau  "  is  also  some- 
times applied  to  reserve  trees  of  any  age  left  after  the  first  cutting  off 
of  a  plantation,  and  such  trees  are  then  called  "  Modernes "  or 
"  Anciens,"  according  as  they  have  been  allowed  to  remain  after  a 
second  or  third  cutting  of  the  coppice.  c.  s.  s. 


20 


TREE    PRUNING. 


on  the  trunk,  which  should  not  exceed  a  third  of  the 
entire  height  of  the  tree.    The  lower  branches  should 


Fit*.  12. —  Cor- 
rect form  of  head 
for  a  tree  under 
forty  years  old. 


Fig.  13.  — Cor- 
rect  form  of  head 
for  a  tree  forty  to 
eighty  years  old. 


be  sufficiently  shortened  to  check  their  excessive 
growth  at  the  expense  of  the  leader,  without,  how- 
ever, being  so  reduced  as  to  impair  the  vigor  of 
growth  of  the  tree. 

2.  The  head  of  the  middle-aged  tree  should  form 
an  oval  less  elongated  than  that  necessary  for  trees 
of  the  first  class.     The  height  of  the  trunk  should 
equal  one-third  to  two-fifths   of   the   height  of  the 
tree  (Fig.  13). 

3.  The  head  of  the  old  tree  (Fig.  14)  should  be 
gradually  rounded  in  outline  ;    the  trunk   may,  in 
some  cases,  be  made  to  reach  a  height  equal  to  half 
the  height  of  the  tree,  which  has  now  probably  ceased 
to  grow  upwards. 


ITS    AIMS    AND    METHODS. 


21 


4.   Veterans  (Fig.  15).     Trees  classed  as  veterans 
have   generally  ceased  to  increase   in  size.      They 


Fig.  14.  —  Correct  form  of 
head  for  a  tree  eighty  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  old. 


Fig.  15.  —  Correct  form  of 
head  for  a  very  old  tree. 


gradually  become  flat-headed,  and  spread  out,  with- 
out, however,  greatly  injuring  the  adjoining  coppices 
and  plantations  destined  to  take  their  place. 

The  proper  method  of  pruning  trees  in  each  of 
these  four  divisions  will  be  considered  hereafter. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  forms  recommended 
are  those  nature  gives  the  most  perfect  and  most 
beautiful  trees ;  although  it  is  the  economic  and  not 
the  picturesque  aspect  of  trees  which  is  here  under 
consideration. 


'22  TREE    PRUNING. 


CHAPTER    III. 

APPLICATION    OF    THE    SYSTEM. 

Tools  used  in  Pruning.  —  The  most  convenient  tool 
for  pruning  is  a  straight-bladed  cleaving  knife.    Suc- 
cess in  all  operations  of  pruning  depends  on 
the  neatness  of  the  cut,  and  this  cannot  be 
attained  with  the  common  billhook  used  in 
many  parts  of  France.      The  best  tool  for 
the   purpose  is  (Fig.  16)   one   which   has 
been  used  for  many  years  in  Holland,  and 
which    has    lately   been    improved   by   de 
Fig.  16.  —  Courval.      It    weighs    from    2  Ibs.    12  oz. 

Improved 

pruning  knife,  to    3  Ibs.  6  oz.,   or   more,  according  to  the 
Stein  incfes]  strength  of  the  workman.      The  blade   is 
reinforced   in   the   middle    to    increase   its 
Jlr       strength  and  concentrate   the  weight.      In 
H        the  north  of  France  this  tool  is  generally 
Fig,  17.  _  hung  to  an  iron  hook  (Fig.  17)  attached 
to  a  leather  strap  buckled  round  the  work- 


the    pruning  man's  waisf  who  is  thus  left  perfectly  free 

knife    to    the 

belt.  in  his  movements  (Fig.  18). 

In  pruning  tall  trees,  or  trees  otherwise  difficult 
to  climb,  the  leather  belt  may  with  advantage  be 
passed  over  the  shoulder,  thus  bringing  the  pruning 


APPLICATION    OF    THE    SYSTEM. 


23 


knife  under  the  arm  in  a  position  from  which  it  can- 
not easily  be  dislodged  in  climbing  (Fig.  19).  To  in- 
sure greater  safety  in  climbing  tall  trees,  a  stout  cord 
attached  to  the  workman's  waist  may  be  fastened 
round  the  trunk  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent,  in 
case  of  accident,  a  dangerous  fall.  A  hatchet  is  use- 


Fig.  18.  —  Pruning  knife 
carried  at  the  waist. 


Fig.  19.  —  Pruning  knife 
carried  under  the  arm. 


ful,  and  facilitates  the  operation  of  pruning  ;  it  may 
be  used  with  one  or  both  hands,  and  serves  to  lop  off 
large  branches,  protuberances  on  the  trunk,  or  the 
dead  stumps  of  branches,  which  from  their  hardness 
would  soon  dull  the  edge  of  the  best  pruning  knife. 
A  saw,  too,  is  very  useful  in  cutting  large  branches, 
but  it  requires  so  much  practice  to  use  this  tool  skil- 
fully that  it  cannot  be  generally  recommended. 

Ladders.  —  Each  laborer  should  be  equipped  with  a 
light  ladder,  proportionate  to  the  height  of  the  tree 
on  which  he  is  to  operate,  and  broader  at  the  base 
than  at  the  top.  De  Courval  recommends  that  the 


24 


TREE    PRUNING. 


feet  of  ladders  intended  for  this  purpose  should  be 
pointed  to  prevent  them  from  slipping.  This  is  a  good 
plan,  although  hardly  sufficient  to  prevent  accident, 
and  the  top  of  the  ladder  should  be  fastened  with  a 
strong  rope  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree  to  prevent  it  from 
being  thrown  down  by  falling  branches  (Fig.  20). 
Hooks  or  Spurs.  —  Except  in  very  exceptional  cases, 
or  where  very  large  trees  are 
to  be  operated  on,  the  climb- 
ing spurs  sometimes  used  by 
professional  pruners  should 
not  be  allowed.  These  men, 
paid  according  to  the  number 
of  trees  operated  on  or  the 
quantity  of  wood  cut,  have 
no  idea  in  pruning  be- 
yond cutting  the  largest 

^  jn  the  short. 

the  paii  of  coai-tar.  est    time.      Climbing    spurs 

should  never  be  used  by  good  workmen  even,  in 
pruning  young  trees,  whose  bark  is  not  sufficiently 
thick  to  resist  the  wounds  caused  by  the  sharp  iron 
teeth  of  this  tool.  Wounds  made  in  this  way  en- 
courage the  growth  of  injurious  side  shoots  on  the 
trunk,  and  leave  defects  in  the  wood  which  never 
disappear,  and  diminish  its  value. 

The  future  value  of  a  tree  depends  upon  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  operation  of  pruning  has  been  per- 
formed ;  and  the  persons  to  whom  this  work  is 
intrusted  should  fully  understand  its  importance. 


Fig.  20.  -Ladder  fastened  with  a  t  Qf 

rope  and  carrying  on  the  top-round 


APPLICATION    OF    THE    SYSTEM.  25 

Unskilful  or  injudicious  pruning  may  completely 
ruin  a  tree,  and  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  labor 
capable  of  doing  such  work  intelligently  causes,  no 
doubt,  many  arboriculturists  to  completely  neglect 
pruning  of  every  kind. 

The  Dendroscope,  —  The  tree  requiring  pruning 
should  be  carefully  studied  from  the  ground,  that 
the  operator  may  be  able  to  judge  intelligently 
which  branches  should  be  removed  or  shortened  in 
order  to  reduce  it  to  the  desired  shape.  This  may  at 
first  seem  difficult  to  beginners  in  the  art  of  pruning ; 
and  a  dendroscope,  the  name  suggested  for  a  simple 
little  contrivance,  the  use  of  which  is  shown  at  Fig. 
21,  may  be  here  used  with  advantage.  A  dendroscope 
may  be  made  from  a  piece  of  thin  board  or  card-board 
(a  playing  card  answers  the  purpose),  in  which  a  hole 
of  the  shape  it  is  desired  to  reduce  the  tree  to  has  been 
cut  (see  Figs.  12,  13,  14,  15).  Across  the  middle 
of  the  hole,  from  top  to  bottom,  a  piece  of  fine  wire 
is  stretched  to  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  eye. 

Holding  the  dendroscope  at  the  level  of  the  eye, 
with  the  wire  opposite  the  centre  of  the  trunk  of  the 
tree  to  be  studied,  the  operator  approaches  the  tree 
until  the  bottom  of  the  cut  falls  on  the  trunk  at 
the  ground  line.  It  is  easy  to  see  at  a  glance  with 
the  aid  of  this  contrivance,  what  operations  should 
be  performed  in  order  to  reduce  the  tree  to  the 
desired  shape.1 

1  A  glance  at  the  dendroscope  placed  at  the  end  of  this  volume  will 
show  the  advantage  of  using  such  an  aid  to  the  eye. 


26 


TREE    PRUNING. 


Remembering  that  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
a  vigorous,  handsome  tree  must  have  a  straight, 
vertical  trunk  and  an  evenly  balanced  head,  the  first 


object  of  pruning  should  be  to  produce  these  condi- 
tions. The  head,  as  has  already  been  explained, 
should  be  oval  in  form  ;  the  height  of  this,  however, 


APPLICATION    OF    THE    SYSTEM.  27 

must  depend  on  the  size  of  the  trunk  and  the  age 
of  the  tree  when  first  subjected  to  the  operations  of 
pruning. 

Selection  of  the  Leader, — The  branch  most  nearly  per- 
pendicular on  the  trunk  of  the  tree  should  be  selected 
to  form  the  leader  ;  and  it  may  be  stated  as  an  abso- 
lute rule,  that  whenever  a  branch  near  the  top  of  the 
tree  stands  vertically  on  the  trunk,  or  even  on  any 
part  of  the  trunk,  it  should  be  preserved  for  the  leader 
(Fig.  22). 


Fig.  22. --Oak  sixty  years  old.     Formation  of  a 
leader  from  a  vertical  branch. 

And  it  is  wrong  to  suppose  that  only  the  original 
leader  can  be  used.  Its  place  may  be  often  supplied 
by  one  of  the  lateral  branches  even ;  and  by  shorten- 
ing the  other  branches  to  stimulate  the  growth  of  the 
new  leader,  the  tree  will,  in  a  few  years,  straighten  up 
in  a  manner  which  will  appear  astonishing  to  persons 


28 


TREE    PRUNING. 


unfamiliar  with  the  results  which  may  be  obtained 
from  a  sensible  system  of  pruning. 

If  none  of  the  branches  near  the  top  of  the  tree 
naturally  approach  a  vertical  position,  two  or  three  or 
several  branches  should  be  preserved  to  form  a  com- 
pact head,  as  represented  in  Fig.  23.  If  the  tree  so 


.     Fig.  23.  —  Oak  with  irregular  head  formed  with 
several  large  branches. 

treated  is  young,  it  is  desirable,  if  possible,  to  establish 
the  fork  at  a  distance  from  the  ground  equal  to  at 
least  one  third  of  the  height  which  the  tree  may  be 
expected  to  attain  at  maturity. 

Shortening  Main  Branches.  —  Starting  from  the  top 
of  the  tree,  where  the  operation  of  pruning  should 
Always  begin,  the  leader  is  first  formed  with  the 
branch  selected  for  this  purpose  ;  the  head  is  made 
with  a  single  leader ;  or,  in  case  of  necessity  (Fig. 
23),  with  several  leaders.  The  principal  branches,  if 


APPLICATION    OF    THE    SYSTEM.  29 

too  long,  should  then  be  shortened,  especially  those 
inclined  to  assume  a  vertical  position  or  to  grow  with 
too  great  vigor  at  the  expense  of  the  leader ;  such 
branches  are  called  gourmands.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  right  point  at  which  to  shorten  these  vertical 
branches  is  the  point  where  they  begin  to  assume 
an  upright  growth  (A  and  B,  Fig.  24). 


Fig.  24.  —  Double  shortening  of  a  main  branch.  A.  Gourmand 
branch.  B.  Secondary  branch.  C.  Small  branch  retained  to  insure  a 
proper  flow  of  sap. 

In  shortening  branches,  the  cut  should,  if  possible, 
be  made  above  the  point  of  development  of  one  or 
several  secondary  ascending  branches  ;  these  in  turn 
should  also  be  cut  just  above  one  of  their  secondary 
branches.  In  this  way  the  direction  of  the  main 
branch  maybe  entirely  changed(Fig.  24),  and  its  dis- 
proportionate vigor  checked  to  the  benefit  of  the 
leader  and  the  whole  tree. 

Sap  Lifters.  —  The  name  of  sap  lifter  l  may,  for  want 
of  a  better  term,  be  given  to  the  branch  or  branches 
retained  at  the  end  of  the  shortened  main  branch. 

1  Branche  d'appel. 


30  TREE   PRUNING. 

The  name  indicates  the  object  for  which  such  branches 
are  left ;  namely,  to  attract  and  elaborate,  by  means 


Fig.  25.  —  Removal  of  a  portion  of  a  forking  branch.     A.  Preser- 
vation of  a  horizontal  fork  at  the  end  of  a  shortened  branch. 

of  their  leaves,  a  sufficient  flow  of  sap  to  insure  the 
growth  of  the  branch.  Sometimes  the  main  branches 
are  so  long  that  it  is  impossible  for  the  operator  to 
reach  the  ends  where  the  sap-lifting  branchlets  should, 
of  course,  be  left.  In  the  case  of  the  Oak,  such 
branches,  except  for  the  appearance  of  the  tree,  are 
of  little  importance ;  and  provided  the  main  branch 
retained  is  of  a  certain  length  (ten  or  twelve  feet), 
and  if  it  is  large  and  on  a  large  healthy  tree,  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  new  shoots  to  insure  vigorous  growth 
will  soon  appear.  With  the  Beech,  however,  and 
some  other  trees  which  do  not  develop  shoots  from 
dormant  buds  as  freely  as  the  Oak,  it  is  necessary  to 
cut  the  branch  just  above  the  forking  of  another 
branch  or  branchlet  large  enough  to  attract  sufficient 
sap  to  insure  a  healthy  growth. 


APPLICATION    OF    THE    SYSTEM.  31 

Double  or  Forking  Branches.  —  In  the  case  of  a  double 
branch,  or  'of  a  branch  forking  close  to  the  trunk  of 
the  tree,  one  of  these  branches  (Fig.  25)  should 
always  be  removed,  that  the  base  of  the  branch  may 
not  become  disproportionately  large.  If,  however, 
such  double  branches  are  objectionable  near  the  trunk 
of  the  tree,  they  are  of  great  importance  at  the  extrem- 
ities of  main  branches ;  and  whenever  it  is  possible, 
branches  should  be  shortened  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
secure  forking  branchlets  at  their  ends.  These  give 
to  the  tree  a  more  natural  appearance,  and  by  divid- 
ing the  flow  of  sap  prevent  the  growth  of  too  vigorous 
shoots,  which  might  in  time  develop  into  supplemen- 
tary leaders,  to  the  injury  of  the  tree.  For  ttis 
reason  it  is  necessary  to  remove  all  branches  or 
branchlets  assuming  a  vertical  growth  or  inserted 
on  the  upper  side  of  a  shortened  branch,  in  order 
to  check  the  tendency  of  such  branches  to  grow 
too  vigorously  at  the  expense  of  the  leader  (Fig. 
26). 

Although  essential  in  pruning  young  trees,  this  is 
less  important  in  the  case  of  older  trees  with  large 
full  heads,  which  in  themselves  have  a  tendency  to 
check  an  unnaturally  strong  growth  of  any  individual 
branch ;  and,  in  operating  on  old  trees,  the  preserva- 
tion of  vigor  in  the  shortened  branch  is  the  principal 
object  to  be  attained.  It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  add 
that  only  main  branches  directed  towards  the  outside 
of  the  tree  should  be  preserved,  and  that  branches 
which  from  any  cause  have  turned  back  towards  the 


32 


TREE    PRUNING. 


trunk  should  be  headed  in,  as  well  as  branches  with 
too  great  a  tendency  to  droop  unnaturally  ;  generally, 


Fig.  26.  —  Effect  of  preserving  a  vertical  secondary  branch  on  the 
upper  side  of  a  shortened  main  branch.  A.  Branch  thus  retained,  ex- 
cessively developed  at  the  expense  of  the  rest  of  the  tree.  B.  Sap  lifter  of 
the  right  size  left  on  the  lower  side  of  the  main  branch  to  insure  its 
development. 

It  will  only  be  necessary  to  shorten  such  branches 
to  induce  them  to  reassume  a  natural  direction  of 
growth. 

When  several  branches  have  been  developed  from 
one  node,  forming  what  botanists  call  a  whorl,  they 
should  not  all  be  cut  away  at  the  same  time,  lest  the 
circulation  of  sap  be  checked  by  the  destruction  of 
bark  (and  consequently  of  cambium  layer)  over  too 
large  a  surface. 

All  dead  and  d}dng  wood  should  be  removed  by 
the  workmen  in  descending  the  tree  ;  lichens,  and 
other  parasites  which  interfere  with  the  growth  of 
young  trees,  should  be  knocked  off  with  the  back 
of  the  pruning  knife ;  and  the  Mistletoe,  the  most 
destructive  of  all  parasites  to  tree  life,  should  be 


APPLICATION    OF    THE    SYSTEM. 


33 


carefully  removed  by  cutting  off  the  branch  bearing 
it.1 

The  necessity  of  commencing  the  operation  of  prun- 
ing at  the  top  of  the  tree  must  be  insisted  on  ;  in  no 
other  way  can  the  form  proper  to  the  tree  be  es- 
tablished or  the  safety  of  the  operator  preserved. 
The  disregard  of  this  rule  was  followed  not  long 
ago  by  what  might  have  been  a  severe  accident.  An 
excellent  workman  was  about  finishing  the  pruning  of 


Fig.  27.  —  Pruning  badly  commenced. 

a  Beech  tree ;  two  long,  slender  branches  (A  and  B, 
Fig.  27)  remained  to  be  operated  on.     He  cut  the 

lln  some  portions  of  the  United  States  where  the  American 
species  of  Mistletoe  flourishes,  especially  in  the  Mississippi  States 
south  of  the  Ohio,  great  damage  is  done  to  different  trees  by  this 
plant.  The  destruction  of  the  Black  Walnut  from  this  cause  has 
become  very  general,  and  causes  serious  loss  in  some  portions  of 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  c.  s.  s. 


34  TREE   PRUNING. 

lower  of  the  two  branches  first ;  the  twigs  on  the 
ends  of  the  branches  had  become  interlocked,  and  the 
branch  B,  in  falling,  pulled  down  the  branch  A.  This 
broke  under  the  weight  of  the  first,  and,  striking  the 
operator  on  the  head,  inflicted  a  severe  wound,  causing 
his  fall  to  the  ground,  a  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty 
feet. 

The  Amputation  of  Large  Branches.  —  Many  of  the 
lower  branches  previously  shortened  must  afterwards 
be  removed,  from  time  to  time,  until  the  necessary 
height  of  trunk  has  been  attained.  The  number  of 
branches  to  be  removed  must,  of  course,  depend  on 
the  height  of  the  tree,  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which 
it  grows,  and  its  age  when  first  operated  on.  Great 
caution  should  be  observed  in  amputating  large 
branches ;  small  branches  can,  of  course,  be  lopped  off 
at  any  time  without  danger  to  the  tree.  We  agree 
with  de  Courval  that  at  least  three  medium-sized 
branches  may  be  safely  removed  from  a  tree  in  one 
year ;  although  if  the  branches  are  very  large,  not 
more  than  one,  or  perhaps  two,  should  be  cut  at  one 
time.  It  is  always  desirable,  however,  not  to  unnec- 
essarily increase  by  the  removal  of  living  branches  the 
wounds  left  on  the  trunk  by  the  cutting  off  of  dead 
branches  or  other  excrescences. 

Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  amputate  a  large  or 
long  branch,  it  should  be  cut  first  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  leave  a  stump  two  or  three  feet  long  before  the 
final  operation  of  cutting  it  close  to  the  trunk  is  un- 
dertaken (Fig.  28).  In  this  way  the  danger  of  tearing 


APPLICATION   OF    THE    SYSTEM. 


35 


away  by  the  weight  of  the  falling  branch  portions  of 
the  bark  of  the  trunk  may  be  avoided.    This  will  pre- 


Fig.  28.  —  Danger  of  beginning  the  amputa- 
tion of  a  long,  heavy  branch  by  a  cut  close 
to  the  trunk.  A.  Point  at  which  the  branch 
should  be  first  cut.  B.  Branch  badly  cut ;  the 
butt  striking  the  workman. 

vent,  too,  the  serious  accidents  which  often  occur 
when  a  large  branch  is  cut  at  first  close  to  the  trunk, 
when  the  end  striking  the  ground  may  cause  the  butt 
to  fly  up  and  throw  down  the  workman.  It  is  an  in- 
dispensable condition  of  the  prompt  healing  over  and 
perfect  circulation  of  sap  that  all  wounds  should  be 
evenly  cut  and  shaped  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 
trunk  of  the  tree.  In  order  to  secure  this  condition, 
the  operation  of  amputating  a  branch  should  be  com- 


36 


TREE    PRUNING. 


menced  by  making  a  notch  on  its  lower  side  (A,  Fig. 
29).      This   notch  should  reach  the  middle  of   the 


Fig.  29.  —  Method  of  preventing 
injury  from  the  fall  of  a  heavy 
branch  by  cutting  notches  on  the 
lower  and  upper  sides. 


Fig.  30.  —  Proper  appearance 
of  a  wound  caused  by  the  ampu- 
tation of  a  large  branch. 


branch  ;  a  second  notch,  B,  should  then  be  made  on 
the  upper  side  of  the  branch,  but  further  from  the 
trunk  of  the  tree  than  the  cut  A.  By  adopting  this 
method  all  danger,  too,  of  injury  to  the  trunk  from 
the  weight  of  the  falling  branch  tearing  away  the 
bark  will  be  avoided. 

The  operation  of  amputating  a  branch  will  not 
be  complete,  whatever  method  is  employed,  until 
the  wound  is  made  perfectly  smooth  (Fig.  30).  The 
workman  may  do  this  with  his  hatchet  used  as  a 
plane,  the  handle  being  held  in  one  hand  and  the 
point  of  the  blade  in  the  other. 

Use  of  Coal-tar  in  Dressing  Wounds.  —  All  wounds 
made  on  the  tree  in  pruning  should  be  covered  with 
a  coat  of  coal-tar  applied  with  an  ordinary  painter's 
brush. 


APPLICATION   OF    THE    SYSTEM.  37 

The  importance  of  observing  the  directions  which 
have  been  given,  however  trivial  or  unimportant  they 
may  seem,  will  be  apparent  when  it  is  understood 
that  the  entire  success  of  the  operations  of  pruning, 
and  of  the  future  production  of  timber,  depends  on 
the  proper  application  of  these  rules. 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  cut 
perfectly  smooth,  and  as  closely  following  the  line  of 
the  trunk  as  circumstances  will  permit,  is  soon 
recovered  with  healthy  straight-grained  wood.  In 
this  connection  it  is  well  to  quote  from  de  Courval, 
who  speaks  with  the  authority  of  experience,  and 
who  has  shown  with  many  varieties  of  trees  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  statements.  "  A  casual  examination," 
he  says,  "  will  show  that  between  the  surface, 
which  has  been  cut  smooth  and  treated  with  coal- 
tar,  and  the  new  tissues  which  soon  cover  it,  there 
is  only  the  thinnest  crack  or  fissure  analogous  to 
the  natural  cracks  or  openings  which  always  appear 
in  wood  in  seasoning,  and  which,  as  is  well  known, 
do  not  diminish  its  strength,  elasticity,  or  value  for 
all  industrial  purposes." 

In  the  preceding  pages,  the  general  rules  which 
should  be  followed  in  pruning  forest  trees  have 
been  given ;  the  special  methods  applicable  to  each 
of  the  four  classes  in  which  trees  have  been  placed 
according  to  their  age  will  now  be  briefly  explained. 


38  TREE    PRUNING. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

METHOD  OF  PRUNING  RESERVE  TREES  OF  DIFFERENT 
AGES. 

Young  Trees,  —  Were  it  practicable  to  train  young 
forest  trees  from  their  early  years  in  the  manner 
adopted  in  nurseries  to  form  ornamental  specimens, 
they  might,  no  doubt,  be  greatly  improved,  but  in 
planting  on  a  large  scale  this  is  of  course  impossible, 
and  it  will  be  assumed  that  the  young  trees  destined 
to  serve  as  reserves  have  been  entirely  neglected  up  to 
the  time  of  the  first  cutting  over  of  the  plantation. 

Where  it  is  the  custom  to  cut  over  coppice  once  in 
every  ten  or  fifteen  years,  the  young  reserve  trees  are 
often  weak  and  without  a  proper  proportion  of  lower 
branches ;  and  thus  liable  to  break  down  under  the 
too  great  weight  of  their  tops.  If  the  young  trees 
are  too  weak  to  support  a  ladder,  they  must  be  bent 
down  by  the  hand  or  by  a  forked  stick,  and  the 
weight  of  the  head  reduced. 

The  stem  in  the  case  of  young  trees  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  furnished  with  branches  for  two  thirds 
of  its  length ;  and  if  the  leader  is  dead,  or  out  of 


PRUNING   RESERVE    TREES.  39 

perpendicular,  it  should  be  cut  off  and  a  vigorous 
branch  taken  up  to  supply  its  place.  This  should 
be  fastened  in  an  upright  position 
to  the  base  of  the  original  leader, 
and  if  some  small  branches  can  be 
left  on  this  they  may  be  used  as 
withes  to  hold  the  new  leader  in  place 
(Fig.  31). 

If  the  young  tree  is  not  strong  enough 
to   stand  alone,  it  must  be  supported  IT 

by    means   of    a    forked    stick    placed  |\ 

against  the   side  to   which   it  inclines 


^ 


(Fig.  32),  a  cushion  of  moss  or  straw  °n   *  young  tree 

twelve      or      fifteen 

being  used  to  prevent   the  bark  from  yearsoid. 

chafing  against  the  support.     It  would  be  better  to 

permanently  stake  and  tie  all  such  feeble  young  trees, 

but  in  a  large  plantation  this  is  not  prac- 

ticable. 

0    When  coppice  is  allowed  to  grow  for 

twenty  years  or  more,  the  young   re- 

serve tree  is  less  difficult  to  manage,  has 

fewer  unfavorable  conditions  to  contend 

against,  and  has  at  least  gained  the  ad- 

vantage of  sufficient  strength  to  support 

a   ladder  ;    one   of  the    upright    upper 

branches  can,  if  necessary,  be  used  to 

J  Fig.  32.  -Method 

form  a  leader;  branches  either  too  long  of  piping  up  a 


or    growing    in    the    wrong    direction  young  tree- 
should  be  shortened  or  removed  to  give  to  the  head 
the  elongated  shape  required  to  prevent  the  excessive 


40 


TREE    PRUNING. 


development  of  the  lower  branches  (Fig  33).  It  may 
be  well  to  add  too,  perhaps,  that  in  pruning  a  young 
reserve  tree  twenty  years  old  the  main  branches 
should  be  shortened  to  about  three  feet,  not  including 
the  branchlets  left  at  their  extremities  to  provide  the 


Fig.  33  —  Young  tree 
twenty  years  old  correctly 
pruned. 


Fig.  34.  —Method  of  forming 
a  leader  for  a  young  tree  by 
straightening  up  a  lateral  branch. 


tree  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  sap.  Proportion- 
ately larger  branches  must  of  course  be  left  on  older 
and  larger  trees. 

Young  trees  grown  in  poor  or  imperfectly  drained 
soil,  or  under  the  unfavorable  conditions  arising  from 
want  of  light,  are  often  destitute  of  proper  leaders. 
Generally,  as  has  already  been  explained,  a  leader  can 
be  formed  by  straightening  up  a  branch  either  by  the 
aid  of  a  withe  fastened  to  one  of  the  shortened  branches 
(Fig.  34),  or  more  simply  by  a  small  branch  twisted 
round  the  branch  selected  for  the  leader  (Fig.  35). 


PRUNING    RESERVE    TREES. 


41 


The  new  leader  thus  formed  will  soon  begin  to  grow, 
and  in  a  short  time  will  entirely  change  the  appear- 
ance of  a  stunted  sickly  tree  (Fig.  36),  which,  so 
treated,  will  become  straight  and  vigorous. 


Fig.  35.  —  Method  of  forming  a 
leader  for  a  young  tree  by  straight- 
ening up  a  lateral  branch. 


Fig.  36.  —  Badly  grown  tree 
twenty  to  thirty  years  old.  First 
pruning 


In  the  case  of  young  trees  with  a  forking  main  stem, 
only  one  of  the  leaders  should  be  allowed  to  remain, 
and  the  one  preserved  should  be  the  more  nearly  up- 
right of  the  two,  without  regard  to  its  size  or  length. 
A  strong  strap,  fastened  to  the  stump  of  the  suppressed 
branch,  may,  if  necessary,  be  used  to  draw  up  the 
leader  into  a  straight  position  (Fig.  37)  ;  when  this  is 
necessary  proper  precautions,  however,  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  the  bark  from  being  injured  by  the  strap. 

Often  young  reserve  trees  otherwise  desirable  to  pre- 
serve are  unable,  from  the  unfavorable  conditions  under 
which  they  have  grown  or  on  account  of  injuries  re* 


42 


TREE    PRUNING. 


ceived  from  falling  trees,  to  support  their  own  weight, 
and  bend  over  to  the  ground.  When  possible  such 
trees  should  be  straightened  and  kept 
upright  by  the  aid  of  a  wire  fastened 
to  a  neighboring  tree.  When  a  wire 
is  used  for  this  purpose,  it  should  be 
fastened  to  a  branch,  and  not  to  the 
trunk  which  it  might,  by  its  cutting 
and  charing,  easily  seriously  injure. 

Should  it  be  found  impossible  to 
straighten  (Fig.  38)  the  young  tree, 
it  must,  unless  cut  back  close  to  the 
ground  with  the  loss  of  several  years' 
0af  g™wth,  be  shortened  in  at  some  dis- 
tance  (A)  above  the  bend  caused  by 
the  weight  of  the  head ;  and  above  a  branch  C, 
which,  while  furnishing  the  stump  with  sufficient 
sap,  may  be  used  as  a  withe  to  support  in  a  ver- 


Fig.  38.  —  Young  tree  bent  to  the  ground  by  the  weight  of  its  top. 


tical    position    the    young   branch    B,   destined    to 
form  the  new  leader.     The  young  tree  thus  reduced, 


PRUNING    RESERVE    TREES. 


43 


and  propped  up  with  a  forked  stick,  will  in  a  short 
time,  the  conditions  being  favorable,  become  a  hand- 
some specimen.  Such  operations  are  important  and 
should  not  be  neglected,  because,  as  has  been  ex- 
plained, it  is  often  desirable  to  increase  the  capacity 
of  a  plantation  to  produce  timber,  by  increasing  the 
number  of  reserve  trees  in  it. 

Middle-aged  Trees,  —  As  has  been  explained,  in 
woods  frequently  cut  over,  the  treatment  necessary  for 
young  reserve  trees  is  often  complicated  and  difficult ; 
this  is  not  the  case  with  older  trees.  Trees  of  the 
second  class  constitute  the  most  important  part  of  the 
forest,  and  should  receive  careful  pruning.  This  gen- 
erally is  not  difficult,  and  there  are  few  trees  of  this 


Fig.  39.  —  Tree  forty  years 
old ;  first  pruning 


Fig.  40.—  Tree  sixty  or  seventy  years 
old,  first  pruning  (second  year). 


class  which  may  not  be  either  entirely  restored,  or  at 
least  very  materially  improved,  if  the  necessary  sup- 


44 


TREE    PRUNING. 


pressions  and  reductions  are  operated  with  judgment 
and  courage  (Fig.  39,  40). 

The  lower  branches,  which  are  often  unnaturally 
developed  and  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  rest 
of  the  tree,  should  be  shortened  to  establish  the 
proper  form  of  head,  while  the  leader  should  be 
treated  in  the  manner  already  recommended  (Fig. 
41.) 

A  tree  operated  on  in  this  manner  will  often  appear 
very  bare  at  first  ;  but  at  the  end  of  a  few  years  the 
head  will  have  regained  a  sufficient 
development. 

Old  Trees.  —  It  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  explain  that  old  trees  re- 
quire more  cautious  treatment  than 
younger  ones,  which  may  if  neces- 
sary be  entirely  remodelled.  In 
pruning  an  old  tree  it  is  not  a 
question  of  a  leader  or  of  increas- 
ing the  size  ;  and  it  is  only  desir- 
able to  regulate  the  shape  of  the 
head  somewhat,  by  shortening  when 
necessary  such  branches  as  in- 
terfcrc,  by  their  length  or  position, 
with  the  equilibrium  of  the  tree  itself,  or  injure  other 
trees  in  its  vicinity.  The  heads  of  old  trees  should, 
as  far  as  possible,  be  reduced  to  a  more  or  less  rounded 
ovoid,  the  lower  branches  being  the  shortest  (Fig. 
42,  43). 

The  main  branches  should  be  left  six  to  twelve  feet 


First  pruning. 


PRUNING    RESERVE    TREES. 


45 


long,  or  even  longer  if  they  are  furnished  with  sufficient 
shoots  to  regulate  the  flow  of  sap,  although  it  may  be 


Fig.  42,  43.  —  Old  Oaks,  first  pruning. 

well  to  repeat  that  the  branches  of  the  Beech  should 
not  be  shortened,  unless  it  can  be  done  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  insure,  by  abundant  foliage  at  their  ends, 
the  supply  of  sap  necessary  for  the  regular  develop- 
ment of  the  tree.  In  shortening  branches,  it  is 
difficult,  especially  for  beginners  in  the  art  of  pruning, 
to  determine  the  point  at  which  the  operation  is  best 
performed.  Practice  and  experience  soon  teach  this, 
however  ;  and,  even  if  a  few  branches  die  under  the 
operation,  no  very  serious  damage  has  been  done. 
Two  or  three  large  branches  can  be  safely  removed  at 
one  time  from  old  trees ;  and,  although  it  is  not  de- 


46 


TREE    PRUNING. 


sirable  to  make  many  wounds  on  the  trunk  of  an  old 
tree,  they  are  less  injurious  than  dead  and  decaying 
branches,  which  produce  cavities  in  the  trunk  that 
should  be  avoided  at  any  cost.  The  branches  of  an 
old  tree  should  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the 
growth  of  a  younger  tree  standing  near  and  intended 
to  replace  it.  In  cases  of  this  sort  the  branches  of 
the  old  tree  should  be  cut  in  on  the  side  nearest  the 
young  tree  much  more  severely  than  if  it  stood  by 
itself  (Fig.  44). 

Veterans,  —  If  a  tree  of  this  class  has  been  properly 
managed,  the  length  of  the  trunk  should  equal  one 

third  to  one  half  of  its  entire 
height.  The  method  of 
pruning  very  old  trees  does 
not  essentially  differ  from 
that  recommended  for  trees 
belonging  to  the  last  class. 
All  dead  or  dying  wood 
should  be  carefully  removed, 
and  all  old  wounds  not 
covered  with  a  healthy 
growth  of  new  wood  should 
be  reopened  in  the  manner  to  be  explained  hereafter. 
All  branches  either  disproportionately  long  or  which 
might  interfere  with  neighboring  trees  should  be 
shortened  ;  and,  should  it  appear  advisable,  one  or 
two  of  the  lower  branches  may  be  amputated.  This 
can  always  be  done  without  injury  to  the  tree,  and 
has  the  advantage  of  increasing  the  length  of  the 


Fig.  44. 


PRUNING   RESERVE    TREES. 


47 


trunk  and  stimulating  the  growth  of  the  top  of  the 
tree  (Fig.  45).  A  tree  is  never  so  old  that  prun- 
ing, if  practised  with  judg- 
ment and  skill,  cannot  pro- 
long its  life  and  increase 
its  value. 

The  restoration  of  an  old 
Oak  maybe  cited  in  this  con- 
nection. This  tree,  which 
stood  in  a  hedge-row,  was 
probably  two  hundred  years 
old  and  had  suffered  ter- 
ribly from  neglect  and  mu- 
tilation. The  lower  por- 
tion of  the  trunk  was 
covered  with  the  dead 
stumps  of  branches  (Fig.  lng' 

46),  their  numerous  protuberances  being  rilled  with 
cavities,  and  bristling  with  vigorous  shoots.  The  top 
had  begun  to  decay,  and  the  tree  seemed  destined  to 
speedy  death.  In  pruning  this  tree,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  make,  in  the  space  of  a  few  feet,  no  less  than 
seven  wounds  ten  to  twenty  inches  wide,  in  addition 
to  many  others  of  smaller  size  (Fig.  47).  In  spite  of 
this  heroic  treatment  the  tree  improved  remarkably 
in  health  and  vigor  ;  and  the  numerous  wounds  made 
on  the  trunk  by  the  amputation  of  dead  branches  en- 
tirely healed  over,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  48. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that,  had  this  Oak  been 
left  in  the  condition  to  which  neglect  had  reduced  it, 


Fig.  45.  —Very  old  tree  ;  first  prun- 


48 


TREE    PRUNING. 


or  if  nothing  beyond  lopping  off  from  year  to  year  the 
young  shoots  developed  along  the  trunk  had  been  at- 


Fig.  46.  —  Trunk  of  an  Oak  injured 
by  neglect  and  bad  pruning. 


Fig.  47.  —  Trunk  of  the  same 
tree  two  years  after  treatment. 


tempted,  its  decay  would  have  been  rapid  and  com- 
plete ;  without  pruning  it  must  soon  have  died 
without  yielding  anything  more  valuable  than  fire- 
wood. 

The  removal  of  numerous  branches,  for  the  purpose 
of  restoring  vigor  to  a  decrepit  tree,  may  seem  op- 
posed to  what  has  already  been  stated  in  regard  to 
the  functions  of  leaves  in  elaborating  plant  food ; 
and  it  might  be  argued  that  pruning  must  be  inju- 
rious, because,  in  shortening  or  removing  a  branch, 
some  of  the  leaf  organs  essential  to  the  growth  of  the 
tree  must  also  be  destroyed.  Such  an  argument  is 
based  on  a  popular  error  of  very  general  acceptance. 

It  is  often  claimed  that  the  healthy  growth  of  a 
plant  depends  on  the  number  of  its  leaves.  It  is 


PRUNING    RESERVE    TREES. 


49 


Fig.  48.  — Old  Oak  restored  to 
vigor  by  numerous  large  amputa- 


not,  however,  the  number  of  leaves,  but  the  total 
superficial  area  of  leaf  surface,  which  determines  the 
vigor  of  growth  of  the  plant. 
An  ordinary  practice  of  the 
nurseries  affords  a  familiar  ex- 
ample. 

A  seedling  tree  several  years 
old  bears,  perhaps,  twenty  or 
thirty  leaves  ;  its  stem  is  not 
thicker  than  a  quill,  and  it 
does  not  grow  vigorously.  If, 
however,  this  plant  is  cut  down 
to  the  ground  in  the  spring,  it 
will  be  replaced,  in  four  or  five 
months,  by  a  stout  vigorous 
shoot  often  an  inch  in  diameter,  turns, 
but  carrying  perhaps  only  six  or  eight  very  large 
leaves  ;  the  superficial  leaf  area  of  the  new  plant  is 
larger,  although  the  actual  number  of  its  leaves  may 
be  considerably  smaller.  This  is  what  good  pruning 
accomplishes ;  i.  e.,  while  it  may  reduce  the  number  of 
leaves  on  a  tree,  it  increases  their  capacity  to  elabo- 
rate plant  food  through  increased  superficial  area. 
Scientific  pruning  provides  too,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered, an  abundant  leaf  area  on  the  branchlets  left 
at  the  extremities  of  all  shortened  branches,  and  ar- 
ranges the  branches  themselves  in  a  manner  to  expose 
the  largest  surface  of  foliage  to  the  oblique  rays  of 
the  sun.  It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  this  apparent  con- 
tradiction between  the  practice  and  theory  of  pruning 

4 


50  TREE    PRUNING. 

does  not  exist ;  and  that  pruning,  while  it  reduces, 
perhaps,  the  actual  number  of  leaves  on  a  tree,  really 
increases  its  vigor  by  furnishing  the  largest  possible 
leaf  surface  in  the  smallest  possible  space. 


TREATMENT    OF    OLD    WOUNDS.  51 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE  TREATMENT  OF  OLD  WOUNDS.  —  CAVITIES  IN 
THE  TRUNK.  — THE  REMOVAL  OF  SHOOTS. 

BARK  once  injured  or  loosened  can  never  attach 
itself  again  to  the  trunk ;  and  whenever  wounds, 
abrasures,  or  sections  of  loose  bark  exist  on  the  trunk 
of  a  tree,  the  damaged  part  should  be  cut  away 
cleanly  as  far  as  the  injury  extends.  Careful  persons 
have  been  known  to  nail  on  to  a  tree  a  piece  of 
loosened  bark,  in  the  hope  of  inducing  it  to  grow 
again,  or  at  least  of  retaining  on  the  young  wood  its 
natural  covering.  Unfortunately  the  result  produced 
by  this  operation  is  exactly  opposite  to  that  intended. 
The  decaying  wood  and  bark  attract  thousands  of 
insects,  which  find  here  safe  shelter  and  abundant 
food  ;  and,  increasing  rapidly,  hasten  the  death  of  the 
tree. 

In  such  cases,  instead  of  refastening  the  loosened 
bark  to  the  tree,  it  should  be  entirely  cut  away,  care 
being  taken  to  give  the  cut  a  regular  outline,  espe- 
cially on  the  lower  side  ;  for,  as  has  been  already 
explained,  if  a  portion  of  the  bark  (A,  Fig.  49), 


52 


TREE    PRUNING. 


even  if  adhering  to  the  wood,  is  left  without  direct 
communication  with  the  leaves,  it  must  die  and 
decay.  A  coating  of  coal-tar  should, 
of  course,  be  applied  to  such  wounds. 

Loosened  Bark.  —  It  is  necessary  to 
frequently  examine  the  lower  portions 
of  the  trunk,  especially  of  trees  begin- 
ning to  grow  old ;  for  here  is  often 
found  the  cause  of  death  in  many  trees, 
in  the  large  sheets  of  bark  entirely  sepa- 
rated from  the  trunk.  This  condition 
of  things,  which  often  cannot  be  de- 
tected except  by  the  hollow  sound  pro- 
.  49.  duced  by  striking  the  trunk  with  the 
back  of  the  iron  pruning  knife,  arrests  the  circulation 
of  sap,  while  the  cavity  between  the  bark  and  the 
wood  furnishes  a  safe  retreat  for  a  multitude  of  in- 
sects, which  hasten  the  destruction  of  the  tree.  The 
dead  bark  should  be  entirely  removed,  even  should  it 
be  necessary  in  so  doing  to  make  large  wounds. 
Attention,  too,  should  be  given  to  injuries  to  the 
bark  caused  by  the  fall  of  neighboring  trees.  These 
may  remain  hidden  for  years,  and  are  often  only 
detected  by  the  peculiar  sound  produced  by  a  blow 
of  the  pruning  knife.  Cases  of  this  nature  require 
the  treatment  recommended  for  the  last  class. 

Cavities  in  the  Trunk.  —  Very  often  when  a  tree  has 
been  long  neglected,  the  trunk  is  seriously  injured  by 
cavities  caused  by  the  decay  of  dead  or  broken 
branches.  It  is  not  claimed  that  pruning  can  remove 


TREATMENT    OF    OLD    WOUNDS.  53 

defects  of  this  nature  :  it  can  with  proper  application, 
however,  arrest  the  progress  of  the  evil,  and  in  such 
cases  should  always  be  resorted  to.  The  edge  of  the 
cavity  should  be  cut  smooth  and  even ;  and  all  de- 
composed matter,  or  growth  of  new  bark  formed  in 
the  interior,  should  be  carefully  removed.  A  coating 
of  coal-tar  should  be  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
cavity,  and  the  mouth  plugged  with  a  piece  of  well- 
seasoned  oak,  securely  driven  into  place.  The  end 
of  the  plug  should  then  be  carefully  pared  smooth 
and  covered  with  coal-tar,  precisely  as  if  the  stump 
of  a  branch  was  under  treatment.  If  the  cavity  is 
too  large  to  be  closed  in  this  manner,  a  piece  of  thor- 
oughly seasoned  oak-board,  carefully  fitted  to  it,  may  be 
securely  nailed  into  the  opening  and  then  covered  with 
coal-tar.  It  is  often  advisable  to  guard  against  the 
attacks  of  insects,  by  nailing  a  piece  of  zinc  or  other 
metal  over  the  board,  in  such  a  way  that  the  growth 
of  the  new  wood  will  in  time  completely  cover  it. 

These  operations  resemble,  if  such  a  comparison 
is  admissible,  the  fillings  performed  by  dentists,  and 
with  the  same  object, — to  check  the  progress  of 
decay. 

A  glance  at  Fig.  50  shows  what  takes  place  when 
cavities  in  the  trunks  of  trees  are  treated  in  the  man- 
ner recommended.  On  the  right  a  cavity  treated  in 
this  manner  is  shown.  New  layers  of  healthy  straight- 
grained  wood  have  already  formed ;  the  circulation 
of  sap  is  regular  and  healthy  ;  and  the  tree  is  entirely 
restored  to  health.  On  the  left  an  old  neglected 


54 


TREE  PRUNING. 


wound  may  be  seen.  These  instructions  are  equally 
applicable  to  the  treatment  of  large  wounds,  caused 
by  the  fall  of  branches  broken  by  the  wind,  or  by 
any  other  cause  (Fig.  4). 

Removal  of  Shoots.  —  During 
the  spring  following  the  opera- 
tion of  pruning,  or  even  sooner 
if  the  tree  has  been  pruned 
during  the  active  flow  of  sap, 
numerous  shoots  are  developed 
along  the  trunk,  and  especially 
along  the  lower  portion  of  the 
branches.  The  number  of  such 
F/IT. 50. -on  the  right  an  old  shoots  varies  greatly  in  differ- 

cavity  properly  treated  and  stop- 
ped:  and  recovered  at  the  end  of  ent   trees;    and   although   they 

twenty  years  with  sound  straight-  .  •       i         ,-\                    -\  .         /» 

grained  wood.    On  the  left  a  wound  af6    DOt    entirely    the    TCSUlt    of 

of  the  same  sort  abandoned  and  pruning,  for  Slich  shoots  appear 
causing  decay  to  penetrate  to  the 

heart  of  the  tree.  on  trees  which  have  never  been 

pruned,  still  it  is  clear  that  their  number  and  vigor 
bear  a  certain  relation  to  the  number  and  size  of  the 
branches  removed  in  pruning,  and  that  the  more  se- 
verely a  tree  is  pruned  the  more  of  these  shoots  it  will 
develop. 

The  removal  of  these  lateral  shoots  is  essential  to 
a  healthy  growth  of  the  tree,  and  may  be  easily  ac- 
complished with  a  little  pruning  hook  (Fig.  51),  so 
light  that  it  can  be  used  by  a  child  if  necessary.  The 
sharp  blade  is  worked  up  and  down  in  the  direction 
of  the  grain  of  the  wood ;  the  little  hook  rounded  at 
the  end  is  also  sharpened,  and  can  be  used  in  cutting 


\ 


TREATMENT    OF    OLD    WOUNDS.  55 

and  pulling  down  shoots  not  entirely  severed  by  the 
blade. 

The  following  method  may  be  adopted  in  removing 
these  young  shoots.  When  the  second  or  August 
growth  of  the  tree  is  finished,  and  the 
young  shoots  are  still  soft  and  tender,  that 
is  in  August  and  September,  a  workman 
armed  with  two  pruning  hooks,  fastened 
on  long  tough  handles  of  different  lengths, 
and  carrying  his  pruning  knife  in  his  belt, 
commences  the  operation  by  cutting  off  all 
the  shoots  within  reach  of  his  knife. 

This  is  continued  first  with  the  short  and 
then  with  the  long-handled  pruning  hook, 
with  which  he  will  be  able  to  reach  to  the 
top  of  the  trunk  of  an  ordinary-sized  tree. 
In  the  case  of  very  tall  trees  it  will,  of 
course,  be  necessary  to  use  a  ladder ;  and,  Fig  51  _ 
although  this  will  make  the  removal  of  the  Prunii>g  book, 
shoots  a  longer  and  more  expensive  operation,  it 
should  not  on  this  account  be  neglected.  The  pres- 
ence of  a  few  shoots,  along  the  upper  part  of  the 
trunk  of  a  large  tree,  does  not  materially  interfere 
with  its  growth ;  their  proximity  to  large  branches,  by 
which  they  are  necessarily  shaded  and  overtopped, 
checks  their  growth  and  prevents  any  great  injury  to 
the  tree.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  all  such  shoots 
developed  on  the  trunk  below  the  branches  should  be 
removed,  except  from  very  young  trees,  insufficiently 
supplied  with  foliage,  or  when  less  than  one  third  of 


56  TREE    PRUNING. 

their  height  is  regularly  furnished  with  branches.  In 
such  cases  several  shoots  should  be  left  to  supply  the 
place  of  branches  and  to  regulate  the  flow  of  sap 
(Fig.  52). 

It  is  often  desirable  to  make  two 
operations  of  lopping  these  shoots. 
Those  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  trunk 
may  be  cut  during  the  first  half  of  July; 
while  those  higher  up  on  the  tree  may 
be  left  until  September,  to  aid  the  flow 
of  sap  and  hasten  the  healing  of  the 
wounds  made  in  removing  those  first 
cut. 
Fig.  62.  -  Pres-  The  removal  of  these  shoots  is  one  of 

ervation  of  shoots      .  .  , 

on  the  stem  of  a  the  most  important  operations  connected 


with  scientinc  pruning,  and  it  should  be 
branches.  carefully  performed  as  long  as  they  con- 

tinue to  appear,  that  is  during  two  or  three  or  at  most 
four  years  if  the  tree  was  skilfully  pruned  at  first. 


SEASON   FOR    PRUNING.  57 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SEASON  FOR  PRUNING.  — THE  USE  OF  COAL-TAR. 

Season  for  Pruning.  —  The  most  favorable  season  of 
the  year  for  pruning  is  the  autumn,  when  the  days  are 
still  long  and  pleasant.  The  sudden  and  severe  frosts, 
however,  which  often  occur  at  this  season  of  the  year, 
are  dangerous,  and  in  some  instances  have  a  tendency 
to  cause  decay  in  freshly  made  wounds.  In  winter 
the  days  are  too  short,  and  often  too  stormy,  to  allow 
continuous  work  of  this  nature ;  while  the  loss  of  sap 
which  occurs  when  trees  are  pruned  in  the  spring, 
although  considerably  checked  by  the  use  of  coal-tar, 
is  probably  rightly  considered  injurious.  The  leaves 
interfere  with  pruning  during  the  summer  months 
when,  too,  there  is  danger  of  the  workmen  inflict- 
ing injury  on  the  growing  tender  shoots  of  neigh- 
boring trees ;  but  a  tree  may  be  pruned  at  any  season 
of  the  year,  and  the  best  time  for  pruning  is  that 
which  is  most  convenient,  and  when  it  can  be  most 
cheaply  performed. 

All  trees,  whatever  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which 
they  grow,  may  be  advantageously  and  profitably 


TEEE  PR  UN  I  NO, 

pruned,  with  the  exception  perhaps  of  trees  growing 
on  very  poor  and  barren  soil.  These,  as  a  general  rule, 
can  produce  nothing  more  valuable  than  fuel,  and 
hardly  justify  the  cost  and  labor  of  pruning. 

The  Use  of  Coal-tar.  —  Coal-tar,  a  waste  product  of 
gas  works,  is  a  dark-brown  imperishable  substance 
with  the  odor  of  creosote.  It  can  be  applied  with  an 
ordinary  painter's-brush,  and  may  be  used  cold,  except 
in  very  cold  weather,  when  it  should  be  slightly 
warmed  before  application.  Coal-tar  has  remarkable 
preservative  properties,  and  may  be  used  with  equal 
advantage  on  living  and  dead  wood.  A  single  appli- 
cation without  penetrating  deeper  than  ordinary  paint 
forms  an  impervious  coating  to  the  wood  cells,  which 
would  without  such  covering,  under  external  influ- 
ences, soon  become  channels  of  decay.  This  simple 
application  then  produces  a  sort  of  instanta- 
neous cauterization,  and  preserves  from  decay  wounds 
caused  either  in  pruning  or  by  accident.  The  odor  of 
coal-tar  drives  away  insects,  or  prevents  them,  by 
complete  adherence  to  the  wood,  from  injuring  it. 
After  long  and  expensive  experiments  the  director  of 
the  Parks  of  the  City  of  Paris  finally,  in  1863,  adopted 
coal-tar  in  preference  to  other  preparations  used  for 
covering  tree  wounds,  as  may  be  seen  in  all  the  prin- 
cipal streets  of  the  capital. 

Objections  to  other  Preparations.  —  Efforts  have  been 
made  for  a  long  time  to  discover  some  method  of 
covering  the  wounds  inflicted  on  trees,  either  acciden- 
tally or  by  the  hands  of  man.  The  remedy  usually 


SEASON   FOR    PRUNING.  59 

recommended  from  time  immemorial  is  the  oint- 
ment of  St.  Fiacre,  a  mixture  of  loam  and  cow 
dung.  Various  preparations,  too,  used  in  grafting, 
and  having  rosin,  wax,  and  grease,  as  their  basis,  have 
at  different  times  been  very  generally  recommended 
for  this  purpose.  These  preparations  are  expensive  ; 
and,  as  they  must  be  applied  hot,  it  is  not  prac- 
ticable to  use  them  on  a  large  scale.  Their  use,  too, 
is  attended  with  serious  difficultieSc  As  the  new 
growth  of  wood  spreads  over  the  wound,  these  thick 
coatings  are  either  broken  or  pushed  aside  bodily,  ac- 
cording to  the  power  of  resistance  of  the  material 
used  ;  and  the  wood  is  again  exposed  and  a  safe 
retreat  for  injurious  insects  prepared. 

One  coat  of  coal-tar  is  sufficient  for  wounds  of  or- 
dinary size  ;  but,  when  they  are  exceptionally  large,  a 
second  coat  may,  after  a  few  years,  be  well  applied. 
In  warm  countries,  like  the  south  of  France,  the  great 
heat  of  summer  renders  coal-tar  so  liquid  that  it  is 
often  impossible  to  properly  treat  wounds  made  at 
that  season.  In  such  cases  another  coat  should  be 
applied  during  the  following  winter. 

Effects  of  Coal-tar  on  the  Elm,  —  The  effect  of  coal- 
tar  on  the  Elm  is  not  always  as  satisfactory  as  upon 
other  forest  trees,  such  as  the  Oak,  Ash,  Sycamore, 
Birch,  Maple,  etc.  The  application  of  a  coat  of  coal- 
tar  on  all  of  these  gives  at  once  to  the  wound  a  hard 
firm  surface  ;  on  the  Elm,  however,  it  does  not  always 
adhere  firmly,  owing  to  the  formation  on  the  surface 
of  the  wound  of  the  water  blisters  common  to  this 


60  TREE    PRUNING. 

tree.  In  such  cases  the  coal-tar  which  does  not 
adhere  firmly  should  be  rubbed  off  and  another  coat 
applied  to  the  wound. 

Employment  of  Coal-tar  in  protecting  Young  Plantations 
against  Animals,  —  Coal-tar  may  be  used  with  excellent 
effect  in  protecting  young  plantations  from  the  at- 
tacks of  rabbits,  and  other  game,  or  such  domestic 
animals  as  goats  and  sheep.  Satisfactory  results  have 
been  obtained  too,  from  the  use  of  coal  tar  in  protect- 
ing young  trees  from  horses,  which  often  take  special 
delight  in  tearing  off  the  entire  bark  from  certain 
kinds  of  trees,  particularly  Elms  and  Poplars.  This 
is  not,  however,  always  a  safe  or  desirable  remedy,  as- 
it  necessitates  covering  a  large  part  of  the  stem,  and 
this  is  often  fatal  to  the  tree  either  by  producing 
asphyxia,  from  which  trees  treated  in  this  manner 
are  liable  to  suffer,  or,  perhaps,  by  the  action  of  the 
powerful  acid  contained  in  coal-tar  itself,  which,  used 
in  large  quantities,  might  perhaps  affect  the  sap. 

Employment  of  Coal-tar  on  Fruit  Trees.  —  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  the  application  of  coal-tar  should  not 
be  made  except  with  considerable  caution  in  the  treat- 
ment of  wounds  on  drupacious  fruit  trees  (Cherries, 
Peaches,  Plums,  etc.),  and  especially  on  the  Plum- 
tree.  It  has  often  been  observed  that  the  bark  of 
fruit  trees  of  this  class  have  suffered  from  the  appli- 
cation of  coal-tar.  This  is  not  the  case,  however, 
with  Pome-bearing  trees  (Apples,  Pears,  etc.) ;  to 
these  coal-tar  may  be  applied  with  perfect  safety. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  from  these  remarks  that 


SEASON   FOR    PRUNING.  61 

coal-tar  cannot  be  used  on  the  Plum,  or  other  trees  of 
its  class.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  no  substance  which 
can  replace  it  in  the  treatment  of  large  wounds  on 
these  trees ;  but  it  should  be  used  cautiously,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  young  trees,  and  should  not  be 
allowed  to  needlessly  run  down  the  trunk  ;  and  it  is 
well  to  remember  that  the  more  active  a  reined}^,  the 
greater  the  care  necessary  in  its  application. 


62  TREE   PRUNING. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SOFT  WOODS.  — POPLARS. -CONIFERS. 

Soft  Woods,  —  Woods  with  little  density  or  strength 
are  called  "  soft  woods  "  or  "  white  woods,"  in  dis- 
tinction from  hard  woods,  such  as  oak,  elm,  ash,  etc. 
Such  woods  are  easy  to  work  and  in  great  de- 
mand for  many  purposes.  The  trees  yielding  wood 
of  this  sort  grow  often  three  or  four  times  as  rapidly 
as  hard-wood  trees,  and  are  therefore  more  profitable 
to  cultivate.  To  this  class  belong  many  trees  with 
deciduous  foliage  such  as  the  Poplars,  Willows,  Lin- 
dens, etc.,  and  most  conifers.  The  general  rules  for 
pruning  are  applicable  to  trees  of  this  class,  and  it  is 
only  necessary  to  say  a  few  words  in  regard  to  the 
treatment  proper  for  Poplars  and  Conifers. 

Poplars.  —  The  Poplars,  owing  to  their  rapid  growth 
and  the  excellent  quality  of  the  wood  yielded  by 
them,  constitute  a  group  of  considerable  interest.  The 
growth  of  these  trees  is  often  so  rapid  that  it  is  prac- 
ticable to  make,  the  length  of  their  trunks  equal  one 
third  to  one  half  of  the  entire  height  of  the  tree,  and 
thus  greatly  increase  their  value  for  industrial  pur- 


SOFT    WOODS.  63 

poses.  The  large  branches  of  trees  of  this  family  are 
very  brittle,  and  are  easily  broken  by  wind  or  ice,  and 
should  be  shortened  in  the  manner  already  explained 
for  hard -wood  trees. 

Conifers,  —  These  trees,  which  are  generally  grega- 
rious and  form  extensive  forests,  are  valuable  subjects 
for  Sylviculture,  on  account  of  the  readiness  with 
which  they  reproduce  themselves  from  seed,  and  be- 
cause they  admirably  prepare  the  soil  to  produce  hard 
woods  and  especially  the  Oak.  Of  the  two  operations 
of  pruning  —  the  cutting  close  to  the  trunk,  and  the 
shortening  of  branches  —  the  second  need  not  often 
be  applied  to  the  natural  pyramidal  form  of  Firs  and 
Spruces :  for  these  trees  nothing  is  necessary  beyond 
removing,  when  possible,  dead  or  dying  branches. 

The  Pines,  however,  when  not  growing  under  the 
conditions  peculiar  to  them,  that  is  crowded  together, 
often  develop  enormous  branches,  which  greatly  in- 
terfere with  the  beauty  and  the  value  of  the  trunk, 
the  only  portion  of  the  tree  possessed  of  any  value. 
The  rules  laid  down  for  shortening  the  branches  of 
Oaks  and  other  deciduous  trees  are,  in  case  of  neces- 
sity, applicable  to  Pines  ;  that  is,  one  third  or  one  half 
of  the  length  of  the  branches  may  be  safely  cut  away. 
It  is  essential,  however,  to  preserve  at  the  end  of  the 
shortened  branches  an  abundant  supply  of  foliage  as 
the  branch  of  a  coniferous  tree  deprived  of  leaves  is 
more  certain  to  perish  than  the  branch  of  a  deciduous 
tree  under  similar  circumstances.  A  Pine  may  in  this 
way  be  made  to  assume  the  natural  form  it  would  have 


64  TREE    PRUNING. 

had  if  grown  under  normal  conditions  ;  the  trunk 
lengthens  and  thickens  regularly,  giving  to  the  tree 
an  economic  value  for  many  purposes  of  construction, 
and  especially  for  the  masts  and  spars  of  vessels. 

As  a  Pine  grows,  the  lower  branches  die  and  dry  up. 
The  resin  with  which  these  are  impregnated  prevents 
their  decay ;  and  these  dead  branches,  embedded  in  the 
new  wood  form  the  knots  which  interfere  with  the 
growth  of  the  tree  and  produce  holes  in  the  boards 
and  planks  cut  from  it.  Such  defects  can  be  greatly 
diminished  by  cutting  off  all  .dead  or  dying  brandies 
close  to  the  trunk  ;  while  a  coat  of  coal-tar  will  pre- 
vent or  reduce  the  flow  of  resin  from  the  wound. 

The  practice  of  leaving  a  short  stump  to  an  ampu- 
tated branch,  adopted  by  some  persons  to  prevent  the 
loss  of  sap,  although  less  objectionable  in  the  case  of 
coniferous  trees,  should  never  be 
adopted.     Such   stumps  must  be 
cut  again  the  following  year  close 
to  the  trunk,  or  cushions  of  wood 
will  form  about  their  base,  cover- 
ing the  trunk  with  protuberances 
(Fig  53).      These  greatly  injure 
Fig.  53.  -  Effect  on  the  the  appearance  and  value  of  the 

Pines  of  leaving   the  stump  .  . 

of  an  amputated  branch.  tree,     and     HCCCSSltatC,      Should     it 

be  found  desirable  to  remove  later  such  excrescences, 
wounds  two  or  three  times  as  large  as  an  original  cut 
close  to  the  trunk  would  have  made. 

The  custom  of  pruning  Pines  is  very  general  in 
France,  and  is  often  carried  to  excess.  The  removal 


SOFT    WOODS.  65 

of  all  branches,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  at  the  top 
of  the  tree,  must  greatly  interfere  with  the  growth  in 
diameter  of  the  trunk ;  and  healthy  branches  should 
not  be  removed  for  the  sake  of  creating  a  clean  trunk 
of  more  than  one  half  or  at  the  most  two  thirds  of 
the  entire  height  of  the  tree.  The  general  rule  of 
pruning  already  explained  in  the  case  of  deciduous 
trees,  and  which  establishes  a  proportion  between  the 
number  of  branches  which  should  be  removed  and 
the  size  of  the  tree,  might  with  advantage  be  more 
generally  applied  in  the  treatment  of  Pines. 


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